Hui Yuan Considerations

En construction

Yogacaara Dharma was first introduced into China in the early sixth century through the Ti-lun, proponants of Vasubandhu's ideas and She-lun masters. who were proponents of Asanga's.

Ti-lun is the short term for the  十地經 (Treatise on the Ten Stages, a commentary by Vasubandhu and She lun a short term for Mahayana.mgraha sastra  (she-lun).

Ti lun also called attention to Buddhabhadra's translation of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Chin., Huayan jing-yen  completed around 418. When the Hua-yen school was established on the basis of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, it quickly absorbed Ti-lun scholars into its fold.

While these Ti-lun and         She-lun   masters  shared  the  general   Yogaacaara

        concern   for  the   problem   of  the  mind,  their         understanding  of the mind's  nature, functions, and         role  in  the  process  of  enlightenment   differed

        markedly  from the original  Indian  model. 

As false [dharmas]  do not exist

        on  their  own  but  arise  dependent  on  the  true

        [-mind], it is said that [dharmas]  evolve  from the

        mind. [The term "false thoughts" in the clause] "are

        produced  by false thoughts"  refers  to the seventh

        consciousness.(12)

If  we  consider  the  immediate

        [condition], dharmas  pertaining  to  the  samsaaric

        [realm] are the products of false thoughts.(13)

He  outlines   three  ways  of

        apprehending  the truth of mind-only, culminating in

        the contemplation of the true-mind as the foundation

        of all beings, including the false mind:

        There are three kinds of contemplation:

        1. The contemplation of false appearances:

            It perceives that the three realms(14) are false

            appearances  proceeding from the mind only, just

            like objects produced  in dreams.  Equipped with

            the idea of nonexistence, [it comprehends  that]

            there is ultimately no dharma outside the mind.

        2. The contemplation of false thoughts:

            It perceives that what the false mind constructs

            is  without  substance   and  comes  into  being

            dependent  on the true [mind], just as waves are

            dependent on water....

        3. The contemplation of the true [-mind]: tathaagatagarbha,

            It perceives  that all dharmas without exception

            originate  and are formed from the true [-mind],

            and  other  than  the  true  [-mind],  there  is

            absolutely  nothing which can give rise to false

            thoughts.   Since   nothing   [other   than  the

            true-mind] can give rise to false thoughts, even

            the false mind [to which common sense attributes

            the production  Hui-yuan  of the

 the only Ti-lun  master  who had left behind a

        wide  assortment  of writings

        I.MIND-ONLY AS THE CENTRAL THEME OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

Hui-yuan  mentions  in  particular  the

        tenet of mind only:

        In the teaching  of the Mahaayaana, it is maintained

        that all dharmas are merely beings of the mind, just

        as appearances  in dreams.  When  the  mind  arises,

        dharmas   [also]   arise;   and  when  the  mind  is

        annihilated, dharmas  are [also] annihilated.  Since

        [the activities  of] the false mind will cease  with

        the  attainment  of  nirvaa.na, all  dharmas,  being

        appearances  of the  mind, will  [also]  come  to an

        end.

He came

        to adopt the thesis of mind-only  as the core of his

        ontology.  Thus, we often find in his writings  such

        statements  as "All dharmas are produced  by the one

        mind,

                                P352

        just as events in dreams are created  by the mind in

        slumber,"(8) "There  exist at first  false thoughts,

        which conceive of [the existence of] dharmas outside

        the mind, not realizing that dharmas owe their being

        to the mind,"(9

, "No realm [of

        being] originates  from itself, but is formed by the

        mind."(10) Again he asserts, "One perceives that the

        external world arises from the mind only. That there

        exists  no realm  outside  the mind is known as 'the

        nature of no-form' (wu-hsiang hsing(f))."(11)

Hui-yuan  affirms very emphatically  in the

        Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin lun i-su(g) (Commentary  on the

        Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin lun(h), henceforth  abbreviated

        to  Commentary) that  to talk  of things  proceeding

        from  false  thoughts  is  provisional,  whereas  in

        truth,    all    dharmas     evolve     from     the

        true-consciousness (chen-shih(i)):

        By  "all  dharmas", [the  Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin  lun]

        refers  to  various   dharmas   [of  the  realm]  of

        samsaara.  [The  term  "mind"  in the  phrase]  "are

        developed    from   the   mind"   refers    to   the

        true-consciousness,

of false  thoughts]  isin truth

            nonexistent.(15)

he refers  to the tathaagatagarbha  as the

        "substance, "  with  the  realms  of  sa.msaara  and

        nirvaa.na   as  its  "functions."

        II.  THE SYSTEM  OF EIGHT  CONSCIOUSNESSES  (1): THE

        AALAYA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE EIGHTH CONSCIOUSNESS

        Speaking  on  the  meaning  of  the  term  "aalaya,"

        Hui-yuan   writes   in  the  Ta-ch'eng   i  chang(k)

        (Essentials    of    the    Mahaayaana,   henceforth

        abbreviated to Essentials):

        "AAlaya",  rendered  literally  into  our  language,

        means "never  loses."  That is, it never  loses [its

        true  nature]  even  when  [transmigrating]  in [the

        realm of] samsara.(25)

        This definition  is followed by a long list of names

        considered  by  Hui-yuan  to  be equivalent  to  the

        "aalaya":

        When rendered freely according  to its significance,

        [the aalaya] is known by eight different names:

        1. It     is    known     as    the    tsang-shih(l)

           (storehouse-consciousness)    ,     for      this

           consciousness  is the  tsang  (embryo, garbha) of

           the tathaagata....(26)

        2. It     is    known     as    the    sheng-shih(m)

           (holy-conciousness), for  it is the basis  of the

           activities of the great sages.

        3. It  is  known  as  the  ti-i-i  shih(n)  (supreme

           consciousness), for it is [in  nature]  the  most

           excellent....

        4. It     is    known     as    the    ching-shih(o)

           (pure-consciousness), also as the wu-kou  shih(p)

           (nondefiled consciousness), for its substance can

           never be soiled....

        5. It     is    known     as    the     chen-shih(q)

           (true-consciousness), for it is in essence devoid

           of falsehood....

        6. It    is   known    as   the   chen-ju    shih(r)

           (tathataa-consciousness), as is explained  in the

           [Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin]  lun: "Since the essence of

           the  mind  cannot  be  destroyed, it is known  as

           chen.  Since  [the  mind  is self-sufficient  and

           depends on the sustenance of nothing, it is known

           as ju." (T, vol. 32, p. 576a, 11. 15-16)

        7. It     is    known     as    the     chia-shih(s)

           (home-consciousness), also  as  the  chai-shih(t)

           (residence-consciousness), for  it  acts  as  the

           support of false dharmas.

        8. It     is    known     as    the     pen-shih(u)

           (root-consciousness) ,  for  it  constitutes  the

           ground of the false mind.(27)

        From  the  above  inventory   of  synonyms   of  the

        aalaya,(28) it is evident  that  in Hui-yuan  yuan's

        system of thought, the aalaya-consciousness  denotes

        the tathaagatagarbha

(1), that is, the intrinsically

        pure  consciousness 

 (3, 4), which  may  be overlaid

        with defilements  but can never be soiled in essence

 (5).  This consciousness  is eternal

 (6), and is the

        origin  of both the physical  and mental aspects  of

        the phenomenal  world 

 (7, 8).  As the basis  of all

        religious   activities,  it   makes   possible   the

        attainment of the supreme enlightenment 

 (2).  Every

        sentient being possesses this immaculate  principle,

        as Hui-yuan emphasizes in the Commentary:

        With respect  to deeds, the common  man and the sage

        are different, each [creating]  his own causes  and [reaping]  his own fruits.

        With respect to [inner] principle, however, they are

        the same  and [are  of] one flavor.  This  principle

        does  not diminish  in the case  of the two vehicles

        [the  `sraavakas  and the pratyekabuddhas), nor does

        it  augment   in  the  cases  of  the  buddhas   and

        bodhisattvas.(29)

        Regarding  the Alaya true-consciousness, it can be divided

        into    three    aspects,   that    is,   substance,

        characteristics,  and  function.

   With  respect  to

        "substance," the true-consciousness  is known as the

        tathataa, which  is  profound, tranquil, and  equal.

        Being  the final reality  (ju-ju(y)) which is of one

        flavor, it remains self-same  whether when hidden or

        when manifested, whether amidst defilements  or [the

        state of] purity.  It remains  placid  at all times,

        and falls neither under [the category  of] cause nor

        under  [the category  of] effect.  With  respect  to

        "characteristics, "  this   consciousness   is   the

        cognitive  mind  pertaining  to [the  realm  of] the

        tathaagatagarbha,    and    is    constituted     of

        buddha-dharmas  [as  numerous  as] the  sand  of the

        Ganges;  just  as the cognitive  mind pertaining  to

        [the realm  of] worldly  dharmas  is constituted  of

        [the features  of] pain and impermanence.  When this

        true  mind  is  in  [the  state  of]  falsehood, its

        [excellent] characteristics are obscured and [so] is

        described  as "defiled."  When it is freed  from the

        bonds of defilement, it is counted  as "pure."  When

        its  pure   characteristics   are  not   yet   fully

        [restored], it is known  as the  "cause."  When  its

        pure characteristics  are perfected, it is known  as

        the  "effect"....   As  for  "function, "  when  the

        true-consciousness  is  in  a defiled  state, it  is

        allied to false thoughts and produces [the realm of]

        sa.msaara.  When  it  is  in  a  pure  condition, it

        produces  [various]  deeds of virtue in response  to

        [the  vices  it is trying  to] eliminate.  When  the

        deeds of virtue  are not yet perfected, this mind is

        known  as the "cause"  of expedient  acts.  When the

        deeds  of virtue  come  to  final  completion, it is

        known as the "effect" of expedient acts.(31)

        By  the  aspect  "substance, "  Hui-yuan  means  the

        true-consciousness  as it is in itself.  As such, it

        is the "final reality" which is "profound, tranquil,

        and equal." Being eternal and immutable, it is above

        all  distinctions, and so the  appellations  "cause"

        and "effect" are not applicable to it. By the aspect

        "characteristics," Hui-yuan refers to the manifested

        features  of the  true-consciousness  when  it is in

        interaction  with worldly  dharmas.  Unlike  worldly

        dharmas which are stamped with the marks of pain and

        impermanence, the true-consciousness  possesses  all

        the  excellent  attributes  of the tathaagatagarbha.

        When  these  excellent  attributes  are obscured  by

        worldly dharmas, the true-consciousness is described

        as  "defiled"   or  the  "cause."  When  all  impure

        influences  are removed, the  true-consciousness  is

        described  as "pure"  or the  "fruit."  So, it comes

        about  that  such  terms  as "defiled," "cause," and

        "effect"    can   be   used    to   represent    the

        true-consciousness  in its relation with the mundane

        world, even when it is understood  that they are not

        appropriate  descriptions  of the true-consciousness

        as  it  is in  itself.  By  the  aspect  "function,"

        Hui-yuan  alludes  to the true-consciousness  as the

        ontological  ground  of both the realms of sa.msaara

        and nirvaa.na. When the true-consciousness is allied

        to  false   thoughts,  it  is  the  source   of  the

        origination  of mundane existences.  When considered

        in connection with  virtuous  deeds, it constitutes  the "cause" as well

        as the "effect" of opportune religious practices.

            Besides  telling  us what the true-consciousness

        or the aalaya is, Hui-yuan  also informs us what the

        true-consciousness  or the aalaya  is not. 

 Hui-yuan

        mentions  several  misconceptions  of the nature and

        functions  of the aalaya, which  he classifies  into

        two categories: those connected  with the notion  of

        "being" (yu(z)), and those connected with the notion

        of "nonbeing" (wu(aa)).(33) Under the first heading,

        he mentions the following errors:

        1. There   are  those  who,  on  hearing   that  the

           true-consciousness  is  the  "self," identify  it

           with  the eternal  soul or aatman  taught  by the

           non-Buddhists.       To      counteract      this

           misunderstanding,  Hui-yuan  declares  that  "the

           tathaagatagarbha   is  neither  the  aatman,  nor

           sentient beings, nor [the force of] life, nor the

           pudgala."(34)

        2. There  are those  who, on hearing  that both  the

           realms  of sa.msaara.a  and  nirvaa.na  originate

           from  the  true-consciousness,  think   that  the

           true-consciousness is composed of defiled as well

           as nondefiled  elements.  Quoting  the  Ta-ch'eng

           ch'i-hsin   lun,  Hui-yuan   stresses  that  "the

           tathaatagarbha is intrinsically pure. It contains

           from the beginning  only pure buddha-dharmas  [as

           numerous as] the sand of the Ganges, and is never

           soiled."(35)

        3. There  are  those,  who,  on  hearing   that  the

           true-consciousness  is resplendent  in  excellent

           qualities,  imagines  that  it  is  composite  in

           nature. Again citing the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun,

           Hui-yuan  reminds  us that the tathataa  which is

           the true  mind  transcends  all differences, even

           including  the difference  of tran-scendence  and

           nontranscendence.      We      described      the

           true-consciousness  as endowed  with  myriads  of

           merits in order to contrast  it with the everyday

           world  of  defilements,  whereas  in  truth,  all

           excellent  qualities  give up their individuality

           to constitute  one nature  in the  pure  mind, so

           much  so that no distinction  can be made of them

           any longer.(36)

        4. There   are  those  who,  on  hearing   that  the

           tathaagatagarha   is  the  ground  of  sa.msaara,

           thinks  that there is a particular  point in time

           at which  the pure-consciousness  begins  to give

           rise to the sa.msaaric  realm.  Furthermore, they

           reason     that    this    tendency     of    the

           pure-consciousness  to give rise to the realm  of

           sa.msaara  does not cease with the attainment  of

           nirvaa.na, and when it is again in operation, the

           nirvaa.na once reached will come to an end.  Once

           more drawing  upon the Ta-ch'eng  ch'i hsin  lun,

           Hui-yuan  underlines  that  the  tathaagatagarbha

           "has  neither  a  beginning  nor  an  end, "  and

           explains:  Since  the  tathaagatagarbha   has  no

           beginning   and  is  the  ground   of  sa.msaara,

           sa.msaara  [also]  has no beginning....Since  the

           tathaagatagarbha  has no end and is the ground of

           nirvaa.na, nirvaa.na [also] has no end.(37)

        By the misconception  connected  with the notion  of

        "nonbeing," Hui-yuan  refers  to the thesis that the

        concept "tathaagatagarbha" denotes nothing more than

        the truth of the empty nature of all beings:

        There are people  who declare  that the truth of the

        empty [nature] of dharmas is the true-consciousness.

        To  correct   this   error,  we  assert   that   the

        tathaagatagarbha   is   truly   nonempty.   As   the

        [true]-consciousness   embodies  buddha-dharmas  [as

        numerous  as] the sand  of the Ganges, how can it be

        taken   as   [totally]    empty?  ....    When   the

        La^nkaavataara-suutra   applies   [the  concept  of]

        no-self  to  the  tathaagatagarbha  (T, vol.  16, p.

        489b) .   it   alludes   to  the   fact   that   the

        tathaagatagarbha  is  called  empty  because  it  is

        without false discriminations,

                                 P357

        [without implying that] there exist no true dharmas.

        So the Vij~naptimaatrasiddhi maintains that in order

        to put an end  to the non-Buddhists'  attachment  to

        [the idea of] the self and things pertaining  to the

        self, it is taught  that  matter  and all  kinds  of

        dharmas  are empty, but this  does not mean that the

        "realm  of  reality"   (ju-shih   ching(ab) )  which

        transcends  common speech  is empty as well.(38) The

        "realm of reality"  is the sphere of the buddhas and

        tathaagatas, in which  no consciousness  other  than

        the    storehouse-consciousness     (the     aalaya)

        exists.(39)

        Unlike  the  Maadhyamikas   who  are  skeptical   of

        metaphysical  speculation and do not acknowledge any

        entity  as ontologically  primary, the  Yogaacaarins

        propound a philosophy of ideation-only, in which all

        phenomenal beings are regarded as projections of the

        original mind.  While Hui-yuan departs from orthodox

        Indian  Yogaacaarism  in his  understanding  of  the

        moral species and functions  of this original  mind,

        the Yogaacaara  descent  of his teaching  comes  out

        conspicuously   in  the  above   criticism   of  the

        interpretation      of      the      concept      of

        "true-consciousness"  as the truth  of emptiness, an

        interpretation    with   a   distinct    Maadhyamika

        undertone.  In  opposition  to  this  non-Yogaacaara

        understanding of the teaching of mind-only, Hui-yuan

        upholds    that    "emptiness"     when    connoting

        "nonexistence"  is appropriate  only in reference to

        beings  of the realm of sa.msaara.  When applied  to

        the  true-consciousness   or  the  tathaagatagarbha,

        "emptiness"  merely alludes  to the freedom from all

        false discriminations of the true mind, and does not

        carry any sense of denial of its existence:

        Some people expound that the true-consciousness does

        not  denote  [an  actual]  consciousness   but  only

        [stands]  for  the  principle  of emptiness.  [Since

        emptiness]  is the essence of consciousness, we call

        it by the name "consciousness"  by way of inference.

        Such a view is the extreme  of absurdity, and should

        not  be accepted.  It is  the  real, cognitive  mind

        which is called the [true]-consciousness. How can it

        be said that [the mind] is totally empty?(40)

        That  the tenet  of the "true-consciousness"  is not

        merely a soteriological device or a more picturesque

        way  of  expressing  a general  truth, but  actually

        stipulates the existence of a veritable entity, is a

        point which Hui-yuan  returns  to again and again in

        his  writings.   When  discussing  the  question  of

        "extinction"  and "nonextinction"  of the true-mind,

        Hui-yuan observes:

        When false [dharmas] are completely annihilated, the

        [activities of the] true [mind] also come to an end,

        and will never  arise again.  So it is said that the

        [true-mind]   is  extinct.   [However],  since   the

        substance  of the true [mind] will abide forever, we

        [also] say that the true [mind] is not extinct.(41)

        Commenting  on the remark of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin

        lun that "When  we speak of cessation  [of the mind,

        we refer to] the cessation of its marks (hsiang(w)),

        not  the cessation  of its substance  (t'i(v)),"(42)

        Hui-yuan writes in the Commentary:

        By "When we speak of cessation of the mind, we refer

        to  the  cessation  of  its  marks," [the  `Saastra]

        alludes   to   [the   cessation    of]   the   false

        consciousnesses.  By "not  to the  cessation  of its

        substance, "   [the   Saastra]   alludes   to   [the

        non-cessation  of] the true-consciousness.  The fact

        that  the false  consciousnesses  can  be completely

        destroyed  does not prevent the [true]-consciousness

        from existing

                                P358

        [eternally],  Since  the  true-consciousness  exists

        eternally, sentient beings are not annihilated [with

        the extinction of the false consciousnesses].  Since

        the  false   consciousnesses   will  eventually   be

        extirpated, sentient  beings  [will sooner or later]

        fulfill the true [end of Buddhahood].(43)

        III.  THE  SYSTEM  OF EIGHT  CONSCIOUSNESS  (2): THE

        AADAANA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE SEVENTH CONSCIOUSNESS

        Besides  the  aalaya  or the  eighth  consciousness,

        Hui-yuan also mentions the aadaana-consciousness  as

        a distinctive  element in the picture of reality  of

        Mahaayaana  Buddhism.   Hui-yuan  defines  the  term

        "aadaana" as follows:

        "AAdaana," rendered  literally  into  our  language,

        means "not [yet] emancipated"  (wu-chieh(ac)).  That

        is,  it  is  essentially  an  ignorant  and  deluded

        mind.(44)

        This  definition  concurs  with  the meaning  of the

        Sanskrit root of aadaana: a-/daa (to take, to seize,

        to draw  near  to oneself), and  is similar  to  the

        explanations    given    of   the   term    in   the

        Sa.mdhinirmocan-suutra,                          the

        Mahaayaanasa.mgraha-`saastra,   and    the    Ch'eng

        wei-shih lun(ad).(45) However, in the aforementioned

        works, the aadaana  is considered  as the other name

        for  the  aalaya, denoting  primarily  the  latter's

        roles as the support of the material  organs and the

        repository   of   karmic   effects.(46)   Since   in

        Hui-yuan's  ontological  scheme, the aalaya has been

        transformed  into  a  pure  consciousness, the  term

        aadaana, with its derogatory  sense of "to hold" and

        "to grasp," is clearly no longer appropriate  as its

        designation.   Thus,  following  the  precedence  of

        Paramaartha  (499-569), the  founder  of the She-lun

        School,(47) Hui-yuan  uses  the  term  "aadaana"  to

        refer  to the  seventh  consciousness.  As with  the

        aalaya, Hui-yuan's  conception of the aadaana or the

        seventh  consciousness  can  be discerned  from  his

        exposition of its synonyms:

        When rendered freely according  to its significance,

        [the aadaana] is known by eight different names:

        1. It  is  known   as  the  ignorant   consciousness

           (wu-ming  shih(ae)), for  it  is  in essence  the

           ground of the original ignorance.(48)

        2. It   is  known   as  the   activity-consciousness

           (yeh-shih(af)), for owing to [the functioning of]

           the ignorant mind, false thoughts [pertaining  to

           the realm of] nonenlightenment  are suddenly  set

           in motion.

        3. It   is  known   as  the   evolving-consciousness

           (chuan-shih(ag)), for owing  to [the  functioning

           of] the aforementioned activity-consciousness, it

           gradually  assumes  gross characteristics, giving

           rise  to external  phenomena  which  it [in turn]

           discriminates and lays hold of.

        4. It  is  known  as  the  reproducing-consciousness

           (hsien-shih(ah)),  for  the  false  objects  [the

           evolving-consciousness]  give rise to reproducing

           [the defiled state of] the mind itself, just as a

           bright mirror reproduces the appearances of object

           [placed in front of it]

        5. It         is        known         as        the

           congnitive-consciousness(chih-shih(ai)),  for  it

           distinguishes   between   the  defiled   and  the

           nondefiled, the disagreeable  and  the  agreeable

           [and so forth]  among objects  reproduced  by the

           above-mentioned      "reproducing-consciousness."

           "Cognition"  here denotes [a kind of] dull, false

           discernment, not wisdom  [which is conducive  to]

           understanding and deliverance.

        6. It  is  known  as the  continuous-consciousness

           (hsiang-hsu shih(aj), for en-

                                P359

           chained  by false  appearances, it complies  with

           the   world   of  objects   and   grasps   at  it

           incessantly.  Furthermore, it can  retain  karmic

           effects good or evil.

        7. It   is   known    as   the   false-consciousness

           (wang-shih(ak) ) ,  for   the   six   forms   [of

           consciousness](l-6) mentioned  above  are all [in

           nature] untrue.

        8. It   is  known   as  the   clinging-consciousness

           (chih-shih(al)), for it clings  to [the  idea of]

           the   self,  and  also   clings   to  all   false

           appearances.(49)

        According   to   the   account   just   given,   the

        aadaana-consciousness,  being  "the  ground  of  the

        original  ignorance"   (1)  and  the  cause  of  the

        production  of "false thoughts"  and "false objects"

        (2,  3, &  4), is  the  source  of  defilements  and

        nonenlightenment   (7)  .   Its   function   is   to

        discriminate  (5), and it clings  to the idea of the

        self  and  false  appearances  (6  &  8) .   As  the

        repository  of karmic  effects  good or evil (6), it

        ensures  the never failing  operation  of the law of

        retribution     and     is    the     subject     of

        transmigration.(50)

            Of the  many  analyses  Hui-yuan  makes  of  the

        aadaana  or the seventh con-sciousness, the division

        into the four characteristics of "function," "self,"

        "ignorance,"  and  "principle"  is  among  the  most

        illuminating.  By  the  characteristic  "function, "

        Hui-yuan has in mind the aadaana as the direct cause

        of the  arising  of the  first  six  consciousnesses

        (eye-consciousness,               ear-consciousness,

        nose-consciousness,            tongue-consciousness,

        body-consciousness,   and   mind-consciousness)  and

        their  corresponding  sense-organs  (eye, ear, nose,

        tongue, body, and  mind) and  sense-objects  (color,

        sound, smell, taste, touch, and ideas):

        Regarding   the   four   [characteristics]   of  the

        "false-[consciousness]  (the aadaana), the first  is

        the characteristic  "function," which  is [connected

        with]  the [first]  six  consciousnesses.  The false

        mind   generates   the  [six]   sense-organs,  [six]

        sense-objects, and [six]  consciousnesses, just like

        the appearances created in dreams.  In this respect,

        the false-[consciousness]  gives rise to the [first]

        six    consciousnesses,   which,   with    the   six

        sense-organs   arising   from  the  same  mind   [as

        support], apprehend the six sense-objects [likewise]

        arising from this same mind, and so is described  as

        "function."(51)

        The characteristic  "self"  indicates  the aadaana's

        erroneous  tendencies  to regard objects originating

        from  its own activities  as possessing  independent

        essences  and to draw a fast line between itself and

        other sentient beings.(52) "Ignorance"  intimates in

        general the deluded essence of the aadaana:

        The third  is the characteristic  "ignorance," which

        refers to [the false-consciousness as] the ground of

        ignorance.  As the nonenlightened  mind, it fails to

        realize  the tathataa  and also  can  not comprehend

        that  [all]  productions   of  the  false  mind  are

        illusory and nonexistent.(53)

        The  characteristic   "principle"   represents   the

        aadaana-consciousness  as  it actually  is: "neither

        being nor nonbeing":

        As for  the  fourth  characteristic, "principle," it

        refers  to [the fact  that  the false-consciousness,

        which  is endowed  with]  the  aforementioned  three

        characteristics, is [in essence] "neither  being nor

        nonbeing."  [The false-consciousness]  is said to be

        "neither  being," for [all]  false forms are without

        substance.  It is said to be "nor  nonbeing," for it

        generates  all sorts of false affections.  Again, it

        is   called   "neither   being, "  for   the   [six]

        sense-organs, [six] sense-objects and [six]

                                P360

        consciousnesses  originating  from this [false] mind

        [are  ephemeral  and] do not exist  apart  from  the

        mind.  It is called  "nor  nonbeing," for this false

        mind  has [the  six sense-organs, six sense-objects,

        and    six-consciousnesses]    as    its    illusory

        manifestations.(54)

        The aadaana or false-consciousness can be denoted as

        "nor  nonbeing," for  it is  the  origin  of  "false

        affections"  and the cause of the appearance  of the

        six  senseorgans,  six  sense-objects, and  the  six

        consciousnesses.  Yet, it can also be designated  as

        "neither  being," for  like  all  "false  forms," it

        relies  entirely  on the  ture-consciousness  or the

        aalaya  for  its  existence, and  the  sense-organs,

        sense-objects, and  consciousnesses  which  it gives

        rise to also enjoy no independent  being outside the

        true mind.  Lest anyone on reading such passages  as

        quotations  49 and 51 preceding  would misunderstand

        that the aadaana-conscoiousness is the first reality

        and can generate the entire phenomenal  world on its

        own, Hui-yuan is especially  careful to remind us of

        this "neither  being" aspect  of the aadaana.  So he

        declares  that  "the  false  self  (aadaana)  arises

        dependent  on the true self  (aalaya),"(55) and that

        the false-consciousness  is ultimately  speaking  as

        much a phenomenal  entity as the objects it helps to

        create, being itself "a transient dharma" dependent

        on the true-consciousness for its being.(56)

            Again, as in the case of the aalaya, as much can

        be learned  of the aadaana-consciousness  from  what

        Hui-yuan says it is not, as from what he says it is.

        Hui-yuan  enumerates  six  principal  misconceptions

        regarding the aadaana-consciousness:(57)

        1. There  are those  who, on hearing  that there are

           only the six sense-organs  eye, ear, nose, and so

           forth, conclude  thereby  that there  can only be

           six consciousnesses, and that there can exist  no

           other   consciousness   to  which  no  senseorgan

           corresponds.  Against this view, Hui-yuan  argues

           that there  ought  to be a seventh  consciousness

           besides  the first six consciousnesses, for if it

           were  not so, the `sraavakas  and pratyekabuddhas

           would achieve full buddhahood when they enter the

           "nirvaa.na  without  residue," for or at the time

           they reach  this state, their six consciousnesses

           would be completely  annihilated, and there would

           remain  no impure  element  to bind  them  to the

           domain  of samsaara.  As  no Mahaayaanists  would

           ever  grant   the  fulfillment   of  the  supreme

           enlightenment  to these Hiinayaana  saints, so it

           should  be  admitted  that  other  than  the  six

           consciousnesses, there subsists  a further impure

           consciousness,  that   is,  the   aadaana,  which

           explains  why the `sraavakas  and pratyekabuddhas

           remain   rooted   in  the  course   of  mundane

           existence, even  while  they have already  put an

           end  to the defilement-generating  activities  of

           the first six consciousnesses.

        2. There  are those who, on hearing  that there is a

           seventh  consciousness, conclude  thereby that it

           is a self-sufficient  entity.  Against this view,

           Hui-yuan  argues  that  this  false-consciousness

           represents   merely   the   nonenlightened    and

           discriminating  aspect of the mind, and possesses

           no substance of its own.  To illustrate the case,

           Hui-yuan  resorts  to the much cited metaphor  of

           the rope mistaken  as a snake.  Just as the snake

           so envisaged is constructed  from the rope and is

           illusory, the same is true  of the aadaana, which

           is  constructed   from  the  true  mind  and  is

           ephemeral like dreams.

        3.  There  are  those,  who,  on  hearing  that  the

           seventh consciousness  is also known as the manas

           (mind), identify it with the manas-indriya  (mind

           sense-

                                P361

           organ),(58) which, together  with  the first  six

           consciousnesses, are known  as the "seven  mental

           realms" in Hiinayaana Buddhism.  Hui-yuan rejects

           this  view for the same reason  he gives  in (1):

           that  is, if  what  is  maintained  is  true, the

           `sraavakas  and pratyekabuddhas  would be able to

           reach  the  supreme   enlightenment,  for  it  is

           commonly   agreed   that  the  manas-indriya   is

           destroyed along with the six consciousnesses when

           the "nirvana without residue" is attained.

        4. There  are those who think that the term "seventh

           consciousness" represents only the failure of the

           first  six consciousnesses  to perceive  that all

           phenomena  are  without  self-nature, and nothing

           more. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues that the

           failure to comprehend  the absence of self-nature

           of  phenomena   is  the  more  apparent  sort  of

           ignorance     allied    to    the    first    six

           consciousnesses,  whereas   there   is   a   more

           fundamental   and   subtle   kind   of  ignorance

           connected with the attachment  to the idea of the

           self  and  the nonapprehension  of the  truth  of

           mind-only,  which  the  "seventh   consciousness"

           stands for.

        5. There  are those  who maintain  that the seventh

           consciousness   is  transient  and  subjected  to

           changes  only  when  the final  truth  is not yet

           comprehended;  but it will be transformed into an

           eternal  and immutable  entity once enlightenment

           is attained.  Against this view, Hui-yuan  argues

           that "the seventh consciousness  is a false mind.

           It is characterized by nothing but delusions, and

           consists  of  nothing  but  discriminations."(60)

           Since  all  delusions   would   vanish   and  all

           discriminations   would   be  forsaken   on   the

           fulfillment of the supreme enlightenment, how can

           there remain  a seventh  consciousness  devoid of

           all  its  essential  properties?  Thus,  Hui-yuan

           concludes  that "When people say that the essence

           of wisdom is immutable, what they refer to by the

           immutable  essence  is  the  true  mind, not  the

           seventh  consciousness."(61)

        6.  There are those who, on hearing that the seventh

            consciousness   will  eventually  be  destroyed,

            judge  that  it  is  a total  nonetity  with  no

            specific  function.  Against this view, Hui-yuan

            insists  that it is solely due to the permeation

            of the aadaana  that  the  aalaya  or the eighth

            consciousness   gives  rise  to  the  phenomenal

            world.

        IV.  THE SYSTEM  OF EIGHT  CONSCIOUSNESSES  (3): THE

        FIRST SIX CONSCIOUSNESSES

        If     the     aalaya-consciousness      and     the

        aadaana-consciousness   are  concepts   peculiar  to

        Yogaacaara Buddhism, and Hui-yuan's incorporation of

        them  into  his  ontological   scheme   is  a  clear

        indication  of  the  Yogaacaara  background  of  his

        thought, the  first  six  consciousnesses, that  is,

        eye-consciousness,                ear-consciousness,

        nose-consciousness,            tongue-consciousness,

        body-consciousness, and  mind-consciousness, on  the

        other hand already appeared frequently  in the early

        Nikaayas as six of the eighteen dhaatus, and as such

        they are concepts  common  to all Buddhist  schools,

        Hiinayaana  and Mahaayaana  alike.  The following is

        Hui-yuan's   explanation   of  how  the  first   six

        consciousnesses get their respective names:

        With  respect   to  the  first  six  [of  the  eight

        consciousnesses],  the  [sense-organ]  corresponding

        with  "color"  is known  as the "eye," and so forth,

        [the  sense-organ]  corresponding  with "dharma"  is

        known  as the "mind."  Since  the mind which  arises

        with these [sense-organs]  as the basis  are capable

        of discernment, it is called  the eye-consciousness,

        and so forth, down to the mind-consciousness.(62)

        Hui-yuan  often  calls the first six consciousnesses

        as a group the "phenomenal

                                 P362

        consciousnesses" (shih-shih(am)), in the same way as

        he    often    designates     the    aadaana    "the

        false-consciousness''    and    the   aalaya    "the

        true-consciousness";  and has the  following  to say

        about them in the Essentials:

        What is called "phenomenal  consciousnesses"  [here]

        are   known   as  the   "evolving   consciousnesses"

        (chuan-shih) in the  La^nkaavataara-suutra  (T, vol.

        16,  p.  463b, 1.1.),  and  the  "manas  [dependent]

        consciousnesses"  (i-shih(an)), the  "discriminating

        manas   [-dependent]   consciousnesses"    (fen-pieh

        i-shih(ao)),  the  "differentiated  consciousnesses"

        (li-shih(ap) ) ,  or  the  "phenomena-discriminating

        consciousnesses"  (fen-peih-shih-shih(aq)),  in  the

        [Ta-ch'eng]  ch'i-hsin lun.  (T, vol.  32, p.  577b,

        11.24-27)

        They  are  called  the  "evolving   consciousnesses"

        because   they   evolve   together   with   the  six

        sense-objects;    unlike   the   false-consciousness

        (aadaana), which is called "evolving  consciousness"

        because  it produced  the external  world.  They are

        called  the "manas"  [-dependent]  consciousnesses,"

        because in the [Ta-ch'eng] ch'i-hsin lun, the eighth

        true-consciousness  is given the name citta, and the

        seventh  [false-consciousness]  is  given  the  name

        manas.    Since    [the    first    six   phenomenal

        consciousnesses]  arise  with  the manas  [as  their

        immediate  cause], they are [thereby] referred to as

        the "manas [-dependent] consciousnesses."  Since the

        [manas] dependent consciousnesses  discriminate  the

        [external] world of six sense-objects, they are also

        known  as  the  "discriminating  manas  [-dependent]

        consciousnesses." Since they are differentiated into

        six, corresponding  to the  [six]  sense-organs  and

        [six]   sense-objects,  they   are   known   as  the

        "differentiated    consciousnesses."    Since   they

        discriminate    the   phenomenal    world   of   six

        sense-objects,  they   are   also   known   as   the

        "phenomena-discriminating consciousnesses."(63)

        This  list  of  synonyms  of  the  term  "phenomenal

        consciousnesses"  shows  the following  facts of the

        first six consciousnesses:

        1.  The   name   "manas-dependent   consciousnesses"

           suggests  that the first six consciousnesses  are

           dependent  on the seventh  consciousness  (and so

           ultimately on the eighth consciousness) for their

           being.  So Hui-yuan remarks a little later in the

           Essentials:

           The  false  self  (seventh  consciousness) arises

           dependent    on    the    true    self    (eighth

           con-sciousness), for attachment to the self comes

           into being when the true [mind]  is permeated  by

           false [thoughts].(64) The phenomenal  self (first

           six consciousnesses) [in turn]  arises  dependent

           on  the  false  self  (seventh  con-sciousness) ,

           resulting  in  a  further  deepening  of  fatuous

           discrimination.  It is so because  the phenomenal

           self regards  sense-organs  and sense-objects  as

           things  with  determinate  nature.  It is so also

           because  the phenomenal  self wrongly  attributes

           [the ideas of] "self" and "properties  pertaining

           to the self"  to skandhas  originating  from  the

           false mind (seventh consciousness).(65)

        2. The name "evolving-consciousnesses" suggests that

           the first  six consciousnesses  "evolve"  only in

           the  presence  of the  six  sense-objects  color,

           sound, smell, and so forth.  From  this  fact, we

           can   further    infer   that   the   first   six

           consciousnesses, unlike  the  seventh  and  eight

           consciousnesses, are not always in operation, for

           experience  shows that the six sense-objects  are

           seldom  available  all  at once.  The  Essentials

           specifies  in detail the various conditions  that

           have  to  be  satisfied   before  the  first  six

           consciousnesses will function:

           The  first  six  phenomenal  consciousnesses  are

           called  "distinct"  (pieh(ar)), while the seventh

           and eighth [consciousnesses]  are called "common"

           (t'ung(as)).  The first six [consciousnesses] are

           known as "distinct," for each has its specific

                                P363

           object, and  arises  one  after  the  other.  The

           seventh  and eighth consciousnesses  are known as

           "common," for they exist always.

           It   is   asked,   "Why   do   the   first    six

           [consciousnesses]  arise one after the other [and

           do  not  come  into  being  together]? "  [It  is

           replied, ]  "In  the  case   of  the  first   six

           [consciousnesses], the  mind  and its object  are

           [conceived   of  as]  distinct  entities.   Being

           difficult  to apprehend, we know  their  presence

           only by the thoughts they give rise to. Since the

           thoughts  they  give  rise  to  are  diverse, [we

           conclude    thereby   that]   the   [first]   six

           [consciousnesses] arise separately and not all at

           once.

           Furthermore, the first  six  consciousnesses  are

           produced on the satisfaction  of four conditions,

           that  is,  causal   condition   (hetu-pratyaya) ,

           consequent   condition   (samanantara-pratyaya) ,

           cooperating   condition (aalambana-pratyaya), and

        efficient   condition   (adhipati-pratyaya) ,  [With

        respect  to the first  six consciousnesses,] the six

        sense-organs  are  the efficient  condition, the six

        sense-objects  are  the  cooperating  condition, the

        preceding  moments  of thought  which  [by  ceasing]

        facilitate  the emergance of the subsequent [moments

        of thought]  are the  consequent  condition, and the

        homogeneous   [cause]   (sabhaagahetu) ,  associated

        [cause] (samprayukta-hetu), and simultaneous [cause]

        (sahabhuu-hetu) ,  and  so  forth   are  the  causal

        condition.(66) Since it is impossible  that [all the

        conditions  for the production of the] six types [of

        consciousness]  are present  at one  time, [we  know

        thereby that the first six consciousnesses]  are the

        consequent  conditions  [of each  other]  and cannot

        arise simultaneously."(67)

           The   first   six  consciousnesses   are   mental

           functions  which  come  into  play  only  on  the

           realization  of four  conditions, that is, causal

           condition,  consequent   condition,   cooperating

           condition, and efficient condition.  For example,

           the eye-consciousness  only comes into being when

           there exists  the sense-organ  "eye" as its inner

           support  (efficient   condition)  and  the  sense

           object "color"  as its outer support (cooperating

           condition).  Furthermore, there  must also be the

           presence   of  light  to  illuminate   the  color

           sense-object  (causal  condition), as well as the

           nonpresence  of the  other  five  consciousnesses

           which  would obstruct  its operation  (consequent

           condition). Since these conditions are not always

           fulfilled,  the  eye-consciousness,  unlike   the

           seventh  and  eighth  consciousnesses,  does  not

           abide   permanetly,  but  comes   and   goes   as

           circumstances change. And the same is true of the

        ear-consciousness,               nose-consciousness,

        tongue-consciousness, and so forth.

        3. The   names    "discriminating    manas-dependent

           consciousnesses,        "         "differentiated

           consciousnesses,"  and  "phenomena-discriminating

           consciousnesses"   suggest  that  the  first  six

           consciousnesses    are   concerned    with    the

           discernment of sense-objects  and the attribution

           of  definite   nature   to  them  despite   their

           mind-dependent  character.  This tendency  of the

           first six consciousnesses  to ascribe determinate

           being to phenomena is dwelt on repeatedly  in the

           Essentials. Thus, in explaining why the first six

           consciousnesses and the seventh consciousness are

           likewise depicted as "false," Hui-yuan writes:

           With respect  to the false [aspect  of the mind],

           the first six [consciousnesses]  are deceived  by

           conditioned  and  illusory  dharmas, and  wrongly

           consider  them  [as  entities]  with  determinate

           nature.  So they  are described  as "false."  The

           seventh  false-consciousness   wrongly  considers

           [dharmas] as possessing definite characteristics,

           even though  there  [actually]  exists  no dharma

           outside  the mind.  So it is [also described  as]

           false.(68)

           The  seventh   consciousness   is  described   as

           "false," for it stands for the general failure of

           sentient   beings   to  realize   the  truth   of

           mind-only, which leads to the false belief in the

           reality of the phenomenal. The first six consci-

                                 P364

           ousnesses  are  also  described  as  "false," for

           under the influence of the false belief formet by

           the seventh  consciousness, they seize on objects

           appearing   in   their   particular   fields   of

           perception  as  entities  possessing  independent

           being, and attribute  names  and get attached  to

           them.  The result naturally is the production  of

           defiled   karma  and  bondage  to  the  realm  of

           samsaara.  So, quoting  the  Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin

           lun,  Hui-yuan   imputes  the  four  features  of

           "sepculating  on names," "attachment," "producing

           karma," and "suffering owing to bondage to karma"

           to the first six consciousnesses:

           As  for  the  four  aspects   of  the  phenomenal

           consciousnesses, they  are  as mentioned  in  the

           [Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] (T, vol. 33, p. 577a):

           (1) The feature  of attachment: This  feature  is

           also  called  "the  taint  which  is  related  to

           attachment" in the [Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] lun.(69)

           It refers to that basic ignorance  which holds on

           to  [everchanging   phenomena  as  objects  with]

           determinate nature.

           (2) The  feature  of speculating  on names: [This

           feature  is connected  with]  the  so called  ten

           fundamental    defilements.(70)   Following   the

           suggestion  of names, [the  ideas  of]  the self,

           sentient  beings, and so forth, and give  rise to

           various  bonds.  So they  are  said  to have  the

           feature of speculating on names.

           ( 3) The feature of producing karma: Owing to its

           defiled     [activities],     [the     phenomenal

           consciousnesses]  produced  all  sorts  of [evil]

           karma.

           (4) The feature of suffering  owing to bondage to

           karma: [The phenomenal  consciousnesses]  receive

           the fruit [of suffering]  according  to the karma

           [they create].(71)

            Again, as in the case of the aalaya  and aadana,

        Hui-yuan tries to define his conception of the first

        six    consciousnesses    by   referring    to   the

        misconceptions  of them.  Altogether, Hui-yuan lists

        eight  erroneous   views  regarding  the  first  six

        consciousnesses, which he classifies into four pairs

        of thesis  and antithesis.(72) We shall outline  the

        first  three pairs which are of immediate  relevance

        to our present purpose:

        1.  There   is  the  opinion   that  the  first  six

           consciousnesses  are of one essence, and there is

           also   the   opinion    that   the   first    six

           consciousnesses are of different essence. Against

           the former view, Hui-yuan  argues  that the first

           six consciousnesses  can not  be absolutely  one,

           for the sense-organs  and sense-objects  they are

           dependent  on are  diverse.  Against  the  latter

           view,  Hui-yuan   argues   that  the  first   six

           consciousnesses are not absolutely different, for

           if  they  were  so, they  would  not  hinder  the

           working  of each other  and would coexist  at all

           time, which  is obviously  not the case in actual

           life.

        2. There is the opinion  that since the notion of an

           enduring  mind  is necessary  to the concepts  of

           transmigration  and  retribution, the  first  six

           consciousnesses    should   be   considered    as

           permanent.  There is also the opinion  that since

           the Buddha has taught  that all mental  functions

           are  transitory, the  first  six  consciousnesses

           should be considered as impermanent.  Against the

           former  view, Hui-yuan  argues that the first six

           consciousnesses  can not be definitely permanent,

           for  the  six   consciousnesses   of  gods,  men,

           animals, hungry  ghosts, and beings  in hell  are

           heterogeneous, so that a sentient moving from one

           of these forms  of rebirth  to another  could not

           have  their  first  six  consciousnesses   remain

           unchanged.   Agains  the  latter  view,  Hui-yuan

           argues that the first six consciousnesses can not

           be definitely  impermanent, for if the mind  were

           annihilated from moment to moment, who is to reap

           the fruit of past deeds after all?(73)

        3. There   is  the  opinion   that  the  first   six

           consciousnesses are definitely existent,

                                P365

           and there is also the opinion  that the first six

           consciousnesses are absolutely empty. Against the

           former  view, Hui-yuan  argues that the first six

           consciousnesses  can not be definitely  existent,

           for  it  is  taught   in  the  holy  texts   that

           consciousnesses  are subject to the four signs of

           birth,  subsistence,  decay,   and   destruction.

           Against the latter view, Hui-yuan argues that the

           first  six consciousnesses  can not be absolutely

           empty, for  if  there  were  not  the  first  six

           consciousnesses,  how  come   there   to  be  the

           awareness  and cognition of external objects? How

           come there to be the production  of good and evil

           karma, and the experience  of pleasure  and  pain

           thereof?

        V. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE TRUE AND THE FALSE: SOME

        PROBLEMS OF THE MIND-ONLY TEACHING OF HUI-YUAN

        In the preceding  discussion, we have several  times

        indicated  that  it is Hui-yuan's  belief  that  the

        first seven consciousnesses  and their objects, that

        is, the entire defiled  phenomenal  world, owe their

        being  to  the  eighth  consciousness, that  is, the

        intrinsically  pure aalaya  or the tathaagatagarbha.

        That the defiled is ontologically  dependent  on the

        pure  can be inferred  from  the general  thesis  of

        mind-only  as outlined  in section  I, and  it is  a

        truth  which  Hui-yuan  repeatedly  stresses  in his

        writings.  So,  commenting  on  the  remark  of  the

        Ta-ch'eng   ch'i-hsin   lun  that  "[Nonenlightened]

        thoughts  are not self-sufficient  and do not  exist

        apart from the original enlightenment,"(74) Hui-yuan

        observes in the Commentary:

        That is to show that false  dharmas  do not exist on

        their own, and are formed on the support of the true

        [mind].  Without  the true  [mind], false  [dharmas]

        will not come into being.(75)

        He further  states in the Commentary  that "the true

        and the false are not separate from each other":

        Question: The  true  and  the  false  are  in nature

        different  from each other.  Why is it said  that in

        disciplining  the false  [consciousnesses], the true

        [mind] is also permeated?

        Answer: It is because the true and the false are not

        separate  from  each  other.  Thus, when  the  false

        [consciousnesses]  are soiled, [the true mind]  also

        becomes soiled. When the false [consciousnesses] are

        pure, [the true mind] also becomes pure....(76)

        And this union of the true mind and false dharmas is

        cited by Hui-yuan as exemplifying the Buddhist ideal

        of nonduality:

        As samsaara and nirvaa.na  arise and are formed from

        the  true  mind,  "functions"  (yung(g) ,  that  is,

        samsaara  and  nirvaa.na) do not  exist  apart  from

        "substance"  (t'i(v), that is, the true mind).  This

        perfect  harmony  of "substance"  and "function"  is

        known as [the truth of] nonduality.(77)

        In this section, we shall  try to see what arguments

        Hui-yuan  has offered  to justify  his  idea  of the

        origination of the false from the true. Based on the

        understanding  so reached, we shall further  attempt

        to define  what exactly  the nonduality  of the true

        mind  and false  dharmas  could  mean  in Hui-yuan's

        teaching of mind-only.

                                P366

            Thus,   it   may   be   asked    how,   if   the

        aalaya-consciousness is intrinsically pure, it could

        ever  come about  that  it would  give  rise  to the

        aadaana-consciousness,      the      first       six

        consciousnesses, and their respective objects, which

        are defiled in nature.  In explaining the derivation

        of the impure from the pure, Hui-yuan  brings in the

        traditional     Buddhist     concept    "ignorance."

        "Ignorance," in Hui-yuan's  own words, "is a deluded

        and benighted [state of] mind. Since it is devoid of

        (wu(at) the light  (ming(au)) of wisdom, it is known

        as  ignorance  (wu-ming(av) ) ."(78) This  ignorance

        permeates  the  pure  mind,  and  brings  about  the

        formation of defiled phenomena. So it is said:

        [When the Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin  lun writes that] "It

        is   solely    due    to   false    thoughts    that

        differentiations come about" (T, vol.  32, p.  576a,

        11.9-10), what [the term] "false thoughts" refers to

        is "ignorance."  Due to the  deluding  influence  of

        ignorance on the tathataa (the pure mind in itself),

        there comes to be [the origination  of the realm of]

        sa.msaara.  It is just as flowers  in the sky appear

        to  those  who  have  ailments   in  the  eyes,  and

        disappear  when the ailments are cured.  The same is

        true  of sentient  beings  who, due  to the veil  of

        ignorance, falsely grasp at illusory [appearances of

        the realm  of] sa.msaara  as actual  existences, and

        [as a result,] create all sorts of [evil] karmas and

        experience all kinds of sufferings.(79)

        Following  closely  the terminology  and pattern  of

        exposition  of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan

        calls the pure mind contaminated  by ignorance  "the

        mind's phenomenal  aspect" (hsin sheng-mieh men(aw))

        and the pure  mind in itself  "the  mind's  noumenal

        aspect" (hsin cheng-ju men(ax)):

        Next, we can divide the mind in two with respect  to

        its   "substance"   (t'i(v) )  and  "characteristic"

        (hsiang(w)).  So it is  stated  in  the  [Ta-ch'eng]

        ch'i-hsin   lun  [that  the  mind  consists  of  two

        aspects:] first, the noumenal  aspect, which  is the

        essential  nature  of  the  mind, and  secondly, the

        phenomenal  aspect, which  is the characteristic  of

        the  mind.  Speaking  of the true  mind  as it is in

        itself,  its  real   substance   remains   eternally

        tranquil, equal, and self-same, and this is known as

        the mind's noumenal aspect....  Speaking of the true

        mind  when  it is governed  by the  false, it unites

        with the false and serves  as the condition  for the

        production   and   annihilation    [of   the   false

        phenomena];   and  this  is  known   as  the  mind's

        phenomenal aspect.(80)

        While  Hui-yuan, faithful  to the  Ti-lun  tradition

        with which he is closely  affiliated, often uses the

        term "aalaya" to designate the true mind in general,

        he sometimes  reserves it specifically  for the true

        mind's  phenomenal  aspect, and postulates  the name

        "amala"  to  designate   the  true  mind's  noumenal

        aspect:

        The  true  [mind]   can  be  subdivided   into   two

        [consciousnesses]:

        1. the  amala-consciousness, which  is  called  the

           "nondefiled   [conscansciousness], "   also   the

           "intrinsically   pure  [consciousness]"   in  our

           (Chinese) language.(81) Since [the amala]  refers

           to the true [mind]  as it is in itself, which  is

           the true substance  which  is eternally  pure, we

           describe  it as  "nondefiled."  It is none  other

           than the noumenal  aspect of the mind [discussed]

           above.

        2. the  aalaya-consciousness, which  is  called  the

           "imperishable consciousness"  (wu-mo shih(ay)) in

           our (Chinese) language.  Since the aforementioned

           true mind does not lose its [real] substance even

           while transmigrating in [the

                                P367

            realm   of]   falsehood,  it  is  described   as

            "imperishable." So it is said in the [Ta-ch'eng]

            ch'i-hsin  lun: "When  [the true mind], which is

            not  subject  to birth  and  death, unites  with

            [falsehood],  which  is  subject  to  birth  and

            death,  we   have   what   is   known   as   the

            aalaya-consciousness.  (T,  vol.  32,  p.  576b,

            11.8-9)(82)

        If we add the amala  and the  aalaya  to the aadaana

        and the first six consciousnesses, we would  come to

        have  a system  of nine consciousnesses, as Hui-yuan

        enumerates in the Essentials:

        First, by analyzing [the mind] into [the two aspects

        of] the true  and the false, it is said  that  there

        are nine consciousnesses. [Thus,] the false [aspect]

        can be divided  into  seven  [consciousnesses], that

        is, the [first] six phenomenal  consciousnesses  and

        the  false  consciousness  (the  aadaana).  The true

        [aspect]  can be divided into two [consciousnesses],

        that is, the amala and the aalaya as shown above. If

        we  add   these   [two   consciousnesses]   to   the

        aforementioned  [seven], there  are altogether  nine

        [consciousnesses].(83)

        This  system   of  nine  consciousnesses,  that  is,

        amala-consciousness,           aalaya-consciousness,

        aadaana-consciousness,    and    the    first    six

        consciousnesses, was actually  taught by the She-lun

        masters  of Hui-yuan's  time.  While  Hui-yuan  as a

        Ti-lun  master  generally  prefers  to consider  the

        scheme of eight consciousnesses  as orthodox,(84) he

        also sees nothing  seriously  amiss with the idea of

        the nine consciousnesses  of the She-lun School.(85)

        In  fact, this  system  of nine  consciousnesses  is

        adopted   sometimes    implicitly    and   sometimes

        explicitly  by Hui-yuan  in  his  exposition  of the

        nature  of  the  mind  in the  Essentials, in  which

        cases, the name "root  consciousness"  (pen-shih(u))

        often replaces  the "aalaya"  as the appellation  of

        the phnomenal  aspect of the true mind.  To cite one

        clear instance:

        ...the true mind (ninth consciousness), which is the

        nature of the buddha, unites with ignorance  to form

        the root-consciousness, [also]  known  as the aalaya

        (eighth   consciousness) .   Based   on   the   root

        [-consciousness], there evolves the aadaana (seventh

        consciousness), the self-grasping mind. [Also] based

        on the root [-consciousness], there  evolve  the six

        [phenomenal]   consciousnesses   such   as  the  eye

        [-consciousness], as well  as the  six  sense-organs

        and [six] sense-objects.(86)

        In   the    Commentary,   the    system    of   nine

        consciousnesses  even takes over the central  stage,

        and  is  used  instead   of  the  scheme   of  eight

        consciousnesses  as the basic framework around which

        Hui-yuan constructs his theory of Reality.(87)

            From  the  above  account, it becomes  adamantly

        clear  that  the question  of how the impure  can be

        derived  from the pure  is answered  by Hui-yuan  by

        introducing a new factor into his ontology, that is,

        ignorance. It is "ignorance" which works on the pure

        mind   and  leads   to  the  production   of  impure

        phenomena.  In order to illustrate how this happens,

        Hui-yuan  often resorts  to the simile  of ocean and

        wind  made famous  by the La^nkaavataara-suutra  and

        the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun:

        It is just like ocean water which is stirred  by the

        wind.  Even  though  the  water  and  the  wind  are

        inseparable, water is not by nature  mobile.  If the

        wind stops, the movement  [of the water] will cease;

        and yet the wet nature  [of the water]  will  remain

        undestroyed.(88)

                                P368

        Explaining   the  above  passage  of  the  Ta-ch'eng

        ch'i-hsin lun in the Commentary, Hui-yuan writes:

        "The ocean-water"  [in the passage]  stands  for the

        eighth   consciousness,  "the   wind"   stands   for

        ignorance, and "the  waves"  stand  for the  [first]

        seven consciousnesses.  [Just as] "the water and the

        wind are inseparable", the true-consciousnesses  and

        ignorance   [likewise]   combine   with  the  coming

        together of relevant conditions. [Just as] "water is

        not  by nature  mobile," the  true  [consciousnesses

        likewise] does not have the nature of falsehood, and

        produces  [the impure  first  seven  consciousnesses

        only]  as a response  to [the  action  of] the false

        (ignorance).  [Just  as]  "If  the  wind  stops, the

        movement  of the ocean water will cease," [likewise]

        when   ignorance    ceases,   the   [first]    seven

        consciousnesses will come to an end.  [Just as] "the

        wet nature  of the water  will remain  undestroyed,"

        the essential  nature  of the true-consciousness  is

        [likewise] eternal.(89)

        Hui-yuan  continues  to cite the simile  as it first

        appears   in  the  La^nkaavaataara-suutra, (90)  and

        concludes with the following remarks:

        This [simile]  shows that even though  the ocean  is

        driven by wind, its water-nature  remains unchanged.

        Since  its  water  [-nature]  never  changes, it  is

        described as "eternal." [On the other hand,] despite

        its  eternal  nature, it assumes  the appearance  of

        waves when driven by wind. [This simile] illustrates

        [the fact]  that even though  the true-consciousness

        [which is the ocean] is disturbed  by the wind which

        is the false thoughts, its true nature never alters.

        [On the other hand,l despite its immutable  essence,

        the  true  aspect  of the  mind  generates  illusory

        phenomena when permeated by false thoughts [created]

        from  the  beginningless  past, giving  rise  to the

        [first]  seven  consciousnesses, in the same  way as

        ocean gives rise to waves [when driven by wind].(91)

        In the  simile, the  true-mind  is likened  to ocean

        water, and  its  purity  to the  ocean  water's  wet

        nature. Ignorance, like wind, blows on the water and

        stirs up waves, that is, impure phenomena comprising

        the first seven  consciousnesses  and their objects.

        But just as motion is not an essential  property  of

        ocean  water,  impure  phenomena  are  also  not  an

        essential  feature of the true-mind.  Moreover, even

        when disturbed, the purity of the mind, like the wet

        nature of the ocean water, remains undestroyed;  and

        once  the  wind  of ignorance  ceases, the waves  of

        impure  phenomena   will  also  disappear,  and  the

        true-mind  will  be its own pure  self  once  again.

        Thus,  by  making  the  action  of  "ignorance"  the

        immediate   occasion   for  the  arising  of  impure

        phenomena, a way seems  to have  been found  to make

        the pure aalaya the ontological ground of the impure

        sa.msaaric  realm, and yet without  compromising  in

        any  way  its  intrinsic  immaculate  essence.

            The falling  back on the concept  of "ignorance"

        to  explain  the  origin  of  defilements  is  quite

        natural   within   the  context   of  Buddhism,  for

        "ignorance"  (avidyaa), as is well known, heads  the

        list of the twelve  links  in the chain of dependent

        origination,  and  as  such,  it  has  always   been

        regarded  by Buddhists  as the main  cause  of man's

        everlasting  bondage  to  the  cycles  of birth  and

        death.  But what interests  us at present is whether

        resorting  to this  concept  does help  Hui-yuan  to

        solve  the  problem  he  has  in  hand.  An  initial

        reaction  to the above  account  is: If the original

        mind of sentient beings is perfectly pure, why is it

                                P369

        subjected  to the defiling influence of "ignorance,"

        even if the latter  is bent on affecting  it? Should

        this liability to the disturbances  of ignorance not

        be  considered  a defect, so  much  so  that  a mind

        bearing  this defect  is no longer  entitled  to the

        epithet of "being perfectly pure"? Conceivably, ways

        can be found to bypass this dilemma. For example, it

        may be argued that the production  of the defiled is

        necessary  in order that the pure-mind  will come to

        self-awareness  of its nondefiled character.  But so

        far as the writings  of Hui-yuan  are concerned, the

        possibility of the arising of such or similar doubts

        and  so  the  need   for   explanation   are   never

        entertained, as if merely by introducing the concept

        "ignorance"  the  issue  of the  origination  of the

        impure  from  the pure  is accounted  for  once  and

        forever.

            Another allied question which Hui-yuan  has left

        completely open is the origin of ignorance.  Indeed,

        there is so little discussion  of the subject in the

        extant  writings  of Hui-yuan  that  we have to rely

        largely  on  his  random  remarks  and  our  general

        understanding  of his metaphysical position to infer

        his opinion on the matter.  Given the general thesis

        of mind-only as outlined in section I, it seems that

        the source of ignorance should be traced back to the

        pure  consciousness, for we have  been informed  all

        along that all forms of existence  without exception

        owe their being to the original  mind.  This idea of

        the  true  mind  as  the  ground  of  ignorance   is

        suggested  by  a  number  of  observations   in  the

        Essentials  and  the  Commentary.  So,  quoting  the

        Ta-ch'eng  ch'i-hsin  lun, Hui-yuan  writes  in  the

        Essentials:

        As there  is at first the tathataa  (the pure mind),

        there  arises  subsequently  ignorance, the cause of

        defilements.  As there  is ignorance, the  cause  of

        defilements, which permeates  the tathataa (the pure

        mind), there arises  the false mind (the first seven

        consciousnesses).(92)

        A little  later, talking  of the  permeation  of the

        tathataa (the true mind), Hui-yuan declares:

        Two  things  result  from  the  permeation   of  the

        tathataa:  first,  the  arising  of  ignorance,  and

        second, the arising  of the false  mind.  Since  the

        tathataa transcends  [all] distinctions, it can give

        rise to ignorance.  Since the tathataa's enlightened

        nature  is  covered  by delusions, it  produces  the

        false mind.(93)

        However, if this idea of the true mind as the source

        of ignorance is adopted as representing the Hui-yuan

        position, the  problem  we have  considered  in  the

        preceding  paragraph, that  is, the  problem  of the

        origination of the impure from the pure, will emerge

        once again, and in an even more acute  form.  For if

        we are previously  told to believe  that a perfectly

        pure mind may become  the support  of impure dharmas

        on being affected by an alien factor "ignorance," we

        are now further  invited  to view this alien factor,

        which is the immediate occasion of the formation  of

        all  impurities,  as  among  the  creations  of  the

        perfectly pure mind itself. Again, we do not dispute

        that  arguments  may  actually  be produced  to make

        sense of this apparently  improbable  situation  But

        the fact remains that

                                P370

        no such argument appears in any of Hui-yuan's extant

        writings, as if there exists  no room for misgivings

        at all.

            Is  it  possible   that  despite  the  scattered

        statements  quoted above, Hui-yuan  in fact means to

        locate the origin  of ignorance  elsewhere? A likely

        candidate  in this respect  is the aadaana, that is,

        the  seventh  consciousness.  We have  seen  in  the

        discussion  of  the  aadaana  in  section  III  that

        Hui-yuan    is   most   keen   on   stressing    the

        nonenlightened essence of the aadaana-consciousness.

        Thus, he  gives  "ignorance"  as  one  of  the  four

        characteristics  of the aadaana,(94) and  cites  the

        term   "ignorant   consciousness"   as  one  of  the

        aadaana's  synonyms.(95) Furthermore, the aadaana is

        several times referred to by Hui-yuan as "the ground

        of  the  original  ignorance, "(96) "the  source  of

        falsehoods,"(97) and  so  forth.  In  the  following

        paragraph, the aadaana is pictured  as the immediate

        factor  leading  to the  arising  of the  first  six

        consciousnesses, a role which in the Hui-yuan system

        of thought is usually reserved for "ignorance":

        Due to the permeation of the root-consciousness (the

        aalaya) by  the  aadaana,  the  self-grasping  mind,

        [sentient beings] do not see [the nature of] dharmas

        as they really are, and cannot attain nirvaa.na. [As

        a  consequence,  ]  there   arise   the  first   six

        consciousnesses   and  [their   corresponding]   six

        sense-organs    and   [six]   sense-objects,   which

        [however]  will cease to exist  when the aadaana  is

        abandoned.(98)

        But  to delegate  the  role  of  "ignorance"  to the

        aadaana-consciousness  does not really help Hui-yuan

        to solve the problem he is facing, for in Hui-yuan's

        mind-only  teaching, the  seventh  consciousness  is

        included  among  the creations  of the intrinsically

        pure  aalaya.  So the  query  why  a perfectly  pure

        aalaya  would give rise to the origin  of impurities

        (not being the aadaana) still applies.  In addition,

        this way of tackling  the problem  suffers  from the

        disadvantage   of   being   circular,  for   is  the

        aadaana-consciousness  not being  made out all along

        as the outcome of the permeation of the pure mind by

        ignorance? How can it also claim to be the cause  of

        ignorance?

            Perhaps, the  easiest  way  out  of the  already

        discussed difficulty is to consider "ignorance" as a

        force   existing    alongside    and   ontologically

        independent  of the pure consciousness.  Indeed, the

        manner in which Hui-yuan presents the interaction of

        the pure mind with ignorance  often suggests  such a

        situation:

        By the union  [of the  true  and the false, werefer

        to]   the   true-consciousness,   which,  on   being

        permeated  by bad  habits  [in existence  from]  the

        beginningless  past, gives  rise  to the  ground  of

        ignorance.  The ignorance thus formed does not exist

        apart from the pure mind, and together with the pure

        mind  constitutes  the basis  of the soul  which  is

        called  the  root-consciousness, also  known  as the

        aalaya-consciousness....  This aalaya, permeated  by

        the false belief in existence of permanent selves in

        operation from the beginningless past, in turn gives

        rise to seeds  of self-attachment.  Due to the power

        of  these  seeds,  there  arises  the  aadaana,  the

        self-clinging  mind....  Again, this aalaya which is

        the  root-consciousness, permeated  by the names  of

        the    six    consciousnesses,   sense-organs,   and

        sense-objects  in operation  from  the beginningless

        past, gives rise to

                                P371

        their seeds.  Due to the power of these seeds, there

        arise the [first] six evolving  consciousnesses  and

        the six sense-organs and sense-objects.(99)

        In  this  account   of  the  evolution   of  various

        phenomenal  consciousnesses  from the true mind, the

        scheme  of  nine  consciousnesses  is  adopted.  The

        account starts with two self-sufficient factors: the

        "true-consciousness"  (the ninth  consciousness) and

        "bad  habits  in existence  from  the  beginningless

        past."  The interaction  of these two factors  gives

        rise to the "root-consciousness," also known  as the

        aalaya  (the  eighth  consciousness), which  has the

        true-consciousness  as its noumenal  aspect and "the

        ground  of ignorance  as the basis of its phenomenal

        aspect." The subsequent  evolution of the phenomenal

        aspect  of  the  root-consciousness   leads  to  the

        formation   of  the  aadaana   and  the  first   six

        consciousnesses with their orresponding sense-organs

        and sense-objects.

            Now, the preceding  picture  of dual  realities,

        that  is, the true-consciousness  and "bad  habits,"

        has the virtue of being straightforward. Besides, it

        successfully evades the demand for an explanation of

        the origin  of ignorance, for if we accept the above

        conceptual  framework, then "bad  habits," like  the

        true-consciousness, has been at work  from eternity,

        and  it owes  its existence  to nothing  other  than

        itself.  Nevertheless, this solution  is not without

        its concomitant shortcomings:

        1. It  entails  a  significant  departure  from  the

           concept of mind-only, for it admits the existence

           of a metaphysical  principle  independent  of the

           pure mind.

        2. It lends credence  to the popular criticism  that

           the  mind-only  teaching  of  the  early  Chinese

           Yogaacaarins  involves  differentiations  between

           the  defiled  and nondefiled, the phenomenal  and

           noumenal,  and  so  forth, and  so  is  seriously

           compromising   the  central  Buddhist   ideal  of

           "nonduality"   (puerh(az)  )   or   the   "round"

           (yuan-jing(ba)) as embodied  in  such  celebrated

           Mahaayaana  sayings as "Sa.msaara  is nirvaa.na,"

           "Form  is emptiness, and emptiness  is form," and

           so  forth.(100)  This  criticism   is  especially

           pertinent  when  "ignorance"   is  considered  as

           existing  apart from the tathaagatagarbha, for if

           defiled  phenomena  arise only when the pure mind

           is permeated  by an external  factor "ignorance,"

           they  would  be accidental  to the pure mind, and

           can be removed  in theory without  affecting  the

           tathaagatagarba's  inner identity.  The formation

           of  impure  dharmas  would  only  be an essential

           feature  of the  pure  mind  if  "ignorance," the

           necessary   condition    for   the   arising   of

           defilements,     is     intrinsic      to     the

           tathaagatagarbha.  But then, ignorance  would  no

           longer  be independent  of the pure mind, and the

           objection  how a perfectly  pure  mind  can  have

           "ignorance"  as  part  of  its  nature  would  be

           relevant again.