Hui Yuan Considerations

En construction

Yogacaara Dharma was first introduced into China in the early sixth century through the Ti-lun, proponants of Vasubandhu's ideas and She-lun masters. who were proponents of Asanga's.

Ti-lun is the short term for the 十地經 (Treatise on the Ten Stages, a commentary by Vasubandhu and She lun a short term for Mahayana.mgraha sastra (she-lun).

Ti lun also called attention to Buddhabhadra's translation of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Chin., Huayan jing-yen completed around 418. When the Hua-yen school was established on the basis of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, it quickly absorbed Ti-lun scholars into its fold.

While these Ti-lun and She-lun masters shared the general Yogaacaara

concern for the problem of the mind, their understanding of the mind's nature, functions, and role in the process of enlightenment differed

markedly from the original Indian model.

As false [dharmas] do not exist

on their own but arise dependent on the true

[-mind], it is said that [dharmas] evolve from the

mind. [The term "false thoughts" in the clause] "are

produced by false thoughts" refers to the seventh

consciousness.(12)

If we consider the immediate

[condition], dharmas pertaining to the samsaaric

[realm] are the products of false thoughts.(13)

He outlines three ways of

apprehending the truth of mind-only, culminating in

the contemplation of the true-mind as the foundation

of all beings, including the false mind:

There are three kinds of contemplation:

1. The contemplation of false appearances:

It perceives that the three realms(14) are false

appearances proceeding from the mind only, just

like objects produced in dreams. Equipped with

the idea of nonexistence, [it comprehends that]

there is ultimately no dharma outside the mind.

2. The contemplation of false thoughts:

It perceives that what the false mind constructs

is without substance and comes into being

dependent on the true [mind], just as waves are

dependent on water....

3. The contemplation of the true [-mind]: tathaagatagarbha,

It perceives that all dharmas without exception

originate and are formed from the true [-mind],

and other than the true [-mind], there is

absolutely nothing which can give rise to false

thoughts. Since nothing [other than the

true-mind] can give rise to false thoughts, even

the false mind [to which common sense attributes

the production Hui-yuan of the

the only Ti-lun master who had left behind a

wide assortment of writings

I.MIND-ONLY AS THE CENTRAL THEME OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

Hui-yuan mentions in particular the

tenet of mind only:

In the teaching of the Mahaayaana, it is maintained

that all dharmas are merely beings of the mind, just

as appearances in dreams. When the mind arises,

dharmas [also] arise; and when the mind is

annihilated, dharmas are [also] annihilated. Since

[the activities of] the false mind will cease with

the attainment of nirvaa.na, all dharmas, being

appearances of the mind, will [also] come to an

end.

He came

to adopt the thesis of mind-only as the core of his

ontology. Thus, we often find in his writings such

statements as "All dharmas are produced by the one

mind,

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just as events in dreams are created by the mind in

slumber,"(8) "There exist at first false thoughts,

which conceive of [the existence of] dharmas outside

the mind, not realizing that dharmas owe their being

to the mind,"(9

, "No realm [of

being] originates from itself, but is formed by the

mind."(10) Again he asserts, "One perceives that the

external world arises from the mind only. That there

exists no realm outside the mind is known as 'the

nature of no-form' (wu-hsiang hsing(f))."(11)

Hui-yuan affirms very emphatically in the

Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun i-su(g) (Commentary on the

Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun(h), henceforth abbreviated

to Commentary) that to talk of things proceeding

from false thoughts is provisional, whereas in

truth, all dharmas evolve from the

true-consciousness (chen-shih(i)):

By "all dharmas", [the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun]

refers to various dharmas [of the realm] of

samsaara. [The term "mind" in the phrase] "are

developed from the mind" refers to the

true-consciousness,

of false thoughts] isin truth

nonexistent.(15)

he refers to the tathaagatagarbha as the

"substance, " with the realms of sa.msaara and

nirvaa.na as its "functions."

II. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES (1): THE

AALAYA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE EIGHTH CONSCIOUSNESS

Speaking on the meaning of the term "aalaya,"

Hui-yuan writes in the Ta-ch'eng i chang(k)

(Essentials of the Mahaayaana, henceforth

abbreviated to Essentials):

"AAlaya", rendered literally into our language,

means "never loses." That is, it never loses [its

true nature] even when [transmigrating] in [the

realm of] samsara.(25)

This definition is followed by a long list of names

considered by Hui-yuan to be equivalent to the

"aalaya":

When rendered freely according to its significance,

[the aalaya] is known by eight different names:

1. It is known as the tsang-shih(l)

(storehouse-consciousness) , for this

consciousness is the tsang (embryo, garbha) of

the tathaagata....(26)

2. It is known as the sheng-shih(m)

(holy-conciousness), for it is the basis of the

activities of the great sages.

3. It is known as the ti-i-i shih(n) (supreme

consciousness), for it is [in nature] the most

excellent....

4. It is known as the ching-shih(o)

(pure-consciousness), also as the wu-kou shih(p)

(nondefiled consciousness), for its substance can

never be soiled....

5. It is known as the chen-shih(q)

(true-consciousness), for it is in essence devoid

of falsehood....

6. It is known as the chen-ju shih(r)

(tathataa-consciousness), as is explained in the

[Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] lun: "Since the essence of

the mind cannot be destroyed, it is known as

chen. Since [the mind is self-sufficient and

depends on the sustenance of nothing, it is known

as ju." (T, vol. 32, p. 576a, 11. 15-16)

7. It is known as the chia-shih(s)

(home-consciousness), also as the chai-shih(t)

(residence-consciousness), for it acts as the

support of false dharmas.

8. It is known as the pen-shih(u)

(root-consciousness) , for it constitutes the

ground of the false mind.(27)

From the above inventory of synonyms of the

aalaya,(28) it is evident that in Hui-yuan yuan's

system of thought, the aalaya-consciousness denotes

the tathaagatagarbha

(1), that is, the intrinsically

pure consciousness

(3, 4), which may be overlaid

with defilements but can never be soiled in essence

(5). This consciousness is eternal

(6), and is the

origin of both the physical and mental aspects of

the phenomenal world

(7, 8). As the basis of all

religious activities, it makes possible the

attainment of the supreme enlightenment

(2). Every

sentient being possesses this immaculate principle,

as Hui-yuan emphasizes in the Commentary:

With respect to deeds, the common man and the sage

are different, each [creating] his own causes and [reaping] his own fruits.

With respect to [inner] principle, however, they are

the same and [are of] one flavor. This principle

does not diminish in the case of the two vehicles

[the `sraavakas and the pratyekabuddhas), nor does

it augment in the cases of the buddhas and

bodhisattvas.(29)

Regarding the Alaya true-consciousness, it can be divided

into three aspects, that is, substance,

characteristics, and function.

With respect to

"substance," the true-consciousness is known as the

tathataa, which is profound, tranquil, and equal.

Being the final reality (ju-ju(y)) which is of one

flavor, it remains self-same whether when hidden or

when manifested, whether amidst defilements or [the

state of] purity. It remains placid at all times,

and falls neither under [the category of] cause nor

under [the category of] effect. With respect to

"characteristics, " this consciousness is the

cognitive mind pertaining to [the realm of] the

tathaagatagarbha, and is constituted of

buddha-dharmas [as numerous as] the sand of the

Ganges; just as the cognitive mind pertaining to

[the realm of] worldly dharmas is constituted of

[the features of] pain and impermanence. When this

true mind is in [the state of] falsehood, its

[excellent] characteristics are obscured and [so] is

described as "defiled." When it is freed from the

bonds of defilement, it is counted as "pure." When

its pure characteristics are not yet fully

[restored], it is known as the "cause." When its

pure characteristics are perfected, it is known as

the "effect".... As for "function, " when the

true-consciousness is in a defiled state, it is

allied to false thoughts and produces [the realm of]

sa.msaara. When it is in a pure condition, it

produces [various] deeds of virtue in response to

[the vices it is trying to] eliminate. When the

deeds of virtue are not yet perfected, this mind is

known as the "cause" of expedient acts. When the

deeds of virtue come to final completion, it is

known as the "effect" of expedient acts.(31)

By the aspect "substance, " Hui-yuan means the

true-consciousness as it is in itself. As such, it

is the "final reality" which is "profound, tranquil,

and equal." Being eternal and immutable, it is above

all distinctions, and so the appellations "cause"

and "effect" are not applicable to it. By the aspect

"characteristics," Hui-yuan refers to the manifested

features of the true-consciousness when it is in

interaction with worldly dharmas. Unlike worldly

dharmas which are stamped with the marks of pain and

impermanence, the true-consciousness possesses all

the excellent attributes of the tathaagatagarbha.

When these excellent attributes are obscured by

worldly dharmas, the true-consciousness is described

as "defiled" or the "cause." When all impure

influences are removed, the true-consciousness is

described as "pure" or the "fruit." So, it comes

about that such terms as "defiled," "cause," and

"effect" can be used to represent the

true-consciousness in its relation with the mundane

world, even when it is understood that they are not

appropriate descriptions of the true-consciousness

as it is in itself. By the aspect "function,"

Hui-yuan alludes to the true-consciousness as the

ontological ground of both the realms of sa.msaara

and nirvaa.na. When the true-consciousness is allied

to false thoughts, it is the source of the

origination of mundane existences. When considered

in connection with virtuous deeds, it constitutes the "cause" as well

as the "effect" of opportune religious practices.

Besides telling us what the true-consciousness

or the aalaya is, Hui-yuan also informs us what the

true-consciousness or the aalaya is not.

Hui-yuan

mentions several misconceptions of the nature and

functions of the aalaya, which he classifies into

two categories: those connected with the notion of

"being" (yu(z)), and those connected with the notion

of "nonbeing" (wu(aa)).(33) Under the first heading,

he mentions the following errors:

1. There are those who, on hearing that the

true-consciousness is the "self," identify it

with the eternal soul or aatman taught by the

non-Buddhists. To counteract this

misunderstanding, Hui-yuan declares that "the

tathaagatagarbha is neither the aatman, nor

sentient beings, nor [the force of] life, nor the

pudgala."(34)

2. There are those who, on hearing that both the

realms of sa.msaara.a and nirvaa.na originate

from the true-consciousness, think that the

true-consciousness is composed of defiled as well

as nondefiled elements. Quoting the Ta-ch'eng

ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan stresses that "the

tathaatagarbha is intrinsically pure. It contains

from the beginning only pure buddha-dharmas [as

numerous as] the sand of the Ganges, and is never

soiled."(35)

3. There are those, who, on hearing that the

true-consciousness is resplendent in excellent

qualities, imagines that it is composite in

nature. Again citing the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun,

Hui-yuan reminds us that the tathataa which is

the true mind transcends all differences, even

including the difference of tran-scendence and

nontranscendence. We described the

true-consciousness as endowed with myriads of

merits in order to contrast it with the everyday

world of defilements, whereas in truth, all

excellent qualities give up their individuality

to constitute one nature in the pure mind, so

much so that no distinction can be made of them

any longer.(36)

4. There are those who, on hearing that the

tathaagatagarha is the ground of sa.msaara,

thinks that there is a particular point in time

at which the pure-consciousness begins to give

rise to the sa.msaaric realm. Furthermore, they

reason that this tendency of the

pure-consciousness to give rise to the realm of

sa.msaara does not cease with the attainment of

nirvaa.na, and when it is again in operation, the

nirvaa.na once reached will come to an end. Once

more drawing upon the Ta-ch'eng ch'i hsin lun,

Hui-yuan underlines that the tathaagatagarbha

"has neither a beginning nor an end, " and

explains: Since the tathaagatagarbha has no

beginning and is the ground of sa.msaara,

sa.msaara [also] has no beginning....Since the

tathaagatagarbha has no end and is the ground of

nirvaa.na, nirvaa.na [also] has no end.(37)

By the misconception connected with the notion of

"nonbeing," Hui-yuan refers to the thesis that the

concept "tathaagatagarbha" denotes nothing more than

the truth of the empty nature of all beings:

There are people who declare that the truth of the

empty [nature] of dharmas is the true-consciousness.

To correct this error, we assert that the

tathaagatagarbha is truly nonempty. As the

[true]-consciousness embodies buddha-dharmas [as

numerous as] the sand of the Ganges, how can it be

taken as [totally] empty? .... When the

La^nkaavataara-suutra applies [the concept of]

no-self to the tathaagatagarbha (T, vol. 16, p.

489b) . it alludes to the fact that the

tathaagatagarbha is called empty because it is

without false discriminations,

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[without implying that] there exist no true dharmas.

So the Vij~naptimaatrasiddhi maintains that in order

to put an end to the non-Buddhists' attachment to

[the idea of] the self and things pertaining to the

self, it is taught that matter and all kinds of

dharmas are empty, but this does not mean that the

"realm of reality" (ju-shih ching(ab) ) which

transcends common speech is empty as well.(38) The

"realm of reality" is the sphere of the buddhas and

tathaagatas, in which no consciousness other than

the storehouse-consciousness (the aalaya)

exists.(39)

Unlike the Maadhyamikas who are skeptical of

metaphysical speculation and do not acknowledge any

entity as ontologically primary, the Yogaacaarins

propound a philosophy of ideation-only, in which all

phenomenal beings are regarded as projections of the

original mind. While Hui-yuan departs from orthodox

Indian Yogaacaarism in his understanding of the

moral species and functions of this original mind,

the Yogaacaara descent of his teaching comes out

conspicuously in the above criticism of the

interpretation of the concept of

"true-consciousness" as the truth of emptiness, an

interpretation with a distinct Maadhyamika

undertone. In opposition to this non-Yogaacaara

understanding of the teaching of mind-only, Hui-yuan

upholds that "emptiness" when connoting

"nonexistence" is appropriate only in reference to

beings of the realm of sa.msaara. When applied to

the true-consciousness or the tathaagatagarbha,

"emptiness" merely alludes to the freedom from all

false discriminations of the true mind, and does not

carry any sense of denial of its existence:

Some people expound that the true-consciousness does

not denote [an actual] consciousness but only

[stands] for the principle of emptiness. [Since

emptiness] is the essence of consciousness, we call

it by the name "consciousness" by way of inference.

Such a view is the extreme of absurdity, and should

not be accepted. It is the real, cognitive mind

which is called the [true]-consciousness. How can it

be said that [the mind] is totally empty?(40)

That the tenet of the "true-consciousness" is not

merely a soteriological device or a more picturesque

way of expressing a general truth, but actually

stipulates the existence of a veritable entity, is a

point which Hui-yuan returns to again and again in

his writings. When discussing the question of

"extinction" and "nonextinction" of the true-mind,

Hui-yuan observes:

When false [dharmas] are completely annihilated, the

[activities of the] true [mind] also come to an end,

and will never arise again. So it is said that the

[true-mind] is extinct. [However], since the

substance of the true [mind] will abide forever, we

[also] say that the true [mind] is not extinct.(41)

Commenting on the remark of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin

lun that "When we speak of cessation [of the mind,

we refer to] the cessation of its marks (hsiang(w)),

not the cessation of its substance (t'i(v)),"(42)

Hui-yuan writes in the Commentary:

By "When we speak of cessation of the mind, we refer

to the cessation of its marks," [the `Saastra]

alludes to [the cessation of] the false

consciousnesses. By "not to the cessation of its

substance, " [the Saastra] alludes to [the

non-cessation of] the true-consciousness. The fact

that the false consciousnesses can be completely

destroyed does not prevent the [true]-consciousness

from existing

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[eternally], Since the true-consciousness exists

eternally, sentient beings are not annihilated [with

the extinction of the false consciousnesses]. Since

the false consciousnesses will eventually be

extirpated, sentient beings [will sooner or later]

fulfill the true [end of Buddhahood].(43)

III. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESS (2): THE

AADAANA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE SEVENTH CONSCIOUSNESS

Besides the aalaya or the eighth consciousness,

Hui-yuan also mentions the aadaana-consciousness as

a distinctive element in the picture of reality of

Mahaayaana Buddhism. Hui-yuan defines the term

"aadaana" as follows:

"AAdaana," rendered literally into our language,

means "not [yet] emancipated" (wu-chieh(ac)). That

is, it is essentially an ignorant and deluded

mind.(44)

This definition concurs with the meaning of the

Sanskrit root of aadaana: a-/daa (to take, to seize,

to draw near to oneself), and is similar to the

explanations given of the term in the

Sa.mdhinirmocan-suutra, the

Mahaayaanasa.mgraha-`saastra, and the Ch'eng

wei-shih lun(ad).(45) However, in the aforementioned

works, the aadaana is considered as the other name

for the aalaya, denoting primarily the latter's

roles as the support of the material organs and the

repository of karmic effects.(46) Since in

Hui-yuan's ontological scheme, the aalaya has been

transformed into a pure consciousness, the term

aadaana, with its derogatory sense of "to hold" and

"to grasp," is clearly no longer appropriate as its

designation. Thus, following the precedence of

Paramaartha (499-569), the founder of the She-lun

School,(47) Hui-yuan uses the term "aadaana" to

refer to the seventh consciousness. As with the

aalaya, Hui-yuan's conception of the aadaana or the

seventh consciousness can be discerned from his

exposition of its synonyms:

When rendered freely according to its significance,

[the aadaana] is known by eight different names:

1. It is known as the ignorant consciousness

(wu-ming shih(ae)), for it is in essence the

ground of the original ignorance.(48)

2. It is known as the activity-consciousness

(yeh-shih(af)), for owing to [the functioning of]

the ignorant mind, false thoughts [pertaining to

the realm of] nonenlightenment are suddenly set

in motion.

3. It is known as the evolving-consciousness

(chuan-shih(ag)), for owing to [the functioning

of] the aforementioned activity-consciousness, it

gradually assumes gross characteristics, giving

rise to external phenomena which it [in turn]

discriminates and lays hold of.

4. It is known as the reproducing-consciousness

(hsien-shih(ah)), for the false objects [the

evolving-consciousness] give rise to reproducing

[the defiled state of] the mind itself, just as a

bright mirror reproduces the appearances of object

[placed in front of it]

5. It is known as the

congnitive-consciousness(chih-shih(ai)), for it

distinguishes between the defiled and the

nondefiled, the disagreeable and the agreeable

[and so forth] among objects reproduced by the

above-mentioned "reproducing-consciousness."

"Cognition" here denotes [a kind of] dull, false

discernment, not wisdom [which is conducive to]

understanding and deliverance.

6. It is known as the continuous-consciousness

(hsiang-hsu shih(aj), for en-

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chained by false appearances, it complies with

the world of objects and grasps at it

incessantly. Furthermore, it can retain karmic

effects good or evil.

7. It is known as the false-consciousness

(wang-shih(ak) ) , for the six forms [of

consciousness](l-6) mentioned above are all [in

nature] untrue.

8. It is known as the clinging-consciousness

(chih-shih(al)), for it clings to [the idea of]

the self, and also clings to all false

appearances.(49)

According to the account just given, the

aadaana-consciousness, being "the ground of the

original ignorance" (1) and the cause of the

production of "false thoughts" and "false objects"

(2, 3, & 4), is the source of defilements and

nonenlightenment (7) . Its function is to

discriminate (5), and it clings to the idea of the

self and false appearances (6 & 8) . As the

repository of karmic effects good or evil (6), it

ensures the never failing operation of the law of

retribution and is the subject of

transmigration.(50)

Of the many analyses Hui-yuan makes of the

aadaana or the seventh con-sciousness, the division

into the four characteristics of "function," "self,"

"ignorance," and "principle" is among the most

illuminating. By the characteristic "function, "

Hui-yuan has in mind the aadaana as the direct cause

of the arising of the first six consciousnesses

(eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,

nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,

body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness) and

their corresponding sense-organs (eye, ear, nose,

tongue, body, and mind) and sense-objects (color,

sound, smell, taste, touch, and ideas):

Regarding the four [characteristics] of the

"false-[consciousness] (the aadaana), the first is

the characteristic "function," which is [connected

with] the [first] six consciousnesses. The false

mind generates the [six] sense-organs, [six]

sense-objects, and [six] consciousnesses, just like

the appearances created in dreams. In this respect,

the false-[consciousness] gives rise to the [first]

six consciousnesses, which, with the six

sense-organs arising from the same mind [as

support], apprehend the six sense-objects [likewise]

arising from this same mind, and so is described as

"function."(51)

The characteristic "self" indicates the aadaana's

erroneous tendencies to regard objects originating

from its own activities as possessing independent

essences and to draw a fast line between itself and

other sentient beings.(52) "Ignorance" intimates in

general the deluded essence of the aadaana:

The third is the characteristic "ignorance," which

refers to [the false-consciousness as] the ground of

ignorance. As the nonenlightened mind, it fails to

realize the tathataa and also can not comprehend

that [all] productions of the false mind are

illusory and nonexistent.(53)

The characteristic "principle" represents the

aadaana-consciousness as it actually is: "neither

being nor nonbeing":

As for the fourth characteristic, "principle," it

refers to [the fact that the false-consciousness,

which is endowed with] the aforementioned three

characteristics, is [in essence] "neither being nor

nonbeing." [The false-consciousness] is said to be

"neither being," for [all] false forms are without

substance. It is said to be "nor nonbeing," for it

generates all sorts of false affections. Again, it

is called "neither being, " for the [six]

sense-organs, [six] sense-objects and [six]

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consciousnesses originating from this [false] mind

[are ephemeral and] do not exist apart from the

mind. It is called "nor nonbeing," for this false

mind has [the six sense-organs, six sense-objects,

and six-consciousnesses] as its illusory

manifestations.(54)

The aadaana or false-consciousness can be denoted as

"nor nonbeing," for it is the origin of "false

affections" and the cause of the appearance of the

six senseorgans, six sense-objects, and the six

consciousnesses. Yet, it can also be designated as

"neither being," for like all "false forms," it

relies entirely on the ture-consciousness or the

aalaya for its existence, and the sense-organs,

sense-objects, and consciousnesses which it gives

rise to also enjoy no independent being outside the

true mind. Lest anyone on reading such passages as

quotations 49 and 51 preceding would misunderstand

that the aadaana-conscoiousness is the first reality

and can generate the entire phenomenal world on its

own, Hui-yuan is especially careful to remind us of

this "neither being" aspect of the aadaana. So he

declares that "the false self (aadaana) arises

dependent on the true self (aalaya),"(55) and that

the false-consciousness is ultimately speaking as

much a phenomenal entity as the objects it helps to

create, being itself "a transient dharma" dependent

on the true-consciousness for its being.(56)

Again, as in the case of the aalaya, as much can

be learned of the aadaana-consciousness from what

Hui-yuan says it is not, as from what he says it is.

Hui-yuan enumerates six principal misconceptions

regarding the aadaana-consciousness:(57)

1. There are those who, on hearing that there are

only the six sense-organs eye, ear, nose, and so

forth, conclude thereby that there can only be

six consciousnesses, and that there can exist no

other consciousness to which no senseorgan

corresponds. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues

that there ought to be a seventh consciousness

besides the first six consciousnesses, for if it

were not so, the `sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas

would achieve full buddhahood when they enter the

"nirvaa.na without residue," for or at the time

they reach this state, their six consciousnesses

would be completely annihilated, and there would

remain no impure element to bind them to the

domain of samsaara. As no Mahaayaanists would

ever grant the fulfillment of the supreme

enlightenment to these Hiinayaana saints, so it

should be admitted that other than the six

consciousnesses, there subsists a further impure

consciousness, that is, the aadaana, which

explains why the `sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas

remain rooted in the course of mundane

existence, even while they have already put an

end to the defilement-generating activities of

the first six consciousnesses.

2. There are those who, on hearing that there is a

seventh consciousness, conclude thereby that it

is a self-sufficient entity. Against this view,

Hui-yuan argues that this false-consciousness

represents merely the nonenlightened and

discriminating aspect of the mind, and possesses

no substance of its own. To illustrate the case,

Hui-yuan resorts to the much cited metaphor of

the rope mistaken as a snake. Just as the snake

so envisaged is constructed from the rope and is

illusory, the same is true of the aadaana, which

is constructed from the true mind and is

ephemeral like dreams.

3. There are those, who, on hearing that the

seventh consciousness is also known as the manas

(mind), identify it with the manas-indriya (mind

sense-

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organ),(58) which, together with the first six

consciousnesses, are known as the "seven mental

realms" in Hiinayaana Buddhism. Hui-yuan rejects

this view for the same reason he gives in (1):

that is, if what is maintained is true, the

`sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas would be able to

reach the supreme enlightenment, for it is

commonly agreed that the manas-indriya is

destroyed along with the six consciousnesses when

the "nirvana without residue" is attained.

4. There are those who think that the term "seventh

consciousness" represents only the failure of the

first six consciousnesses to perceive that all

phenomena are without self-nature, and nothing

more. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues that the

failure to comprehend the absence of self-nature

of phenomena is the more apparent sort of

ignorance allied to the first six

consciousnesses, whereas there is a more

fundamental and subtle kind of ignorance

connected with the attachment to the idea of the

self and the nonapprehension of the truth of

mind-only, which the "seventh consciousness"

stands for.

5. There are those who maintain that the seventh

consciousness is transient and subjected to

changes only when the final truth is not yet

comprehended; but it will be transformed into an

eternal and immutable entity once enlightenment

is attained. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues

that "the seventh consciousness is a false mind.

It is characterized by nothing but delusions, and

consists of nothing but discriminations."(60)

Since all delusions would vanish and all

discriminations would be forsaken on the

fulfillment of the supreme enlightenment, how can

there remain a seventh consciousness devoid of

all its essential properties? Thus, Hui-yuan

concludes that "When people say that the essence

of wisdom is immutable, what they refer to by the

immutable essence is the true mind, not the

seventh consciousness."(61)

6. There are those who, on hearing that the seventh

consciousness will eventually be destroyed,

judge that it is a total nonetity with no

specific function. Against this view, Hui-yuan

insists that it is solely due to the permeation

of the aadaana that the aalaya or the eighth

consciousness gives rise to the phenomenal

world.

IV. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES (3): THE

FIRST SIX CONSCIOUSNESSES

If the aalaya-consciousness and the

aadaana-consciousness are concepts peculiar to

Yogaacaara Buddhism, and Hui-yuan's incorporation of

them into his ontological scheme is a clear

indication of the Yogaacaara background of his

thought, the first six consciousnesses, that is,

eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,

nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,

body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness, on the

other hand already appeared frequently in the early

Nikaayas as six of the eighteen dhaatus, and as such

they are concepts common to all Buddhist schools,

Hiinayaana and Mahaayaana alike. The following is

Hui-yuan's explanation of how the first six

consciousnesses get their respective names:

With respect to the first six [of the eight

consciousnesses], the [sense-organ] corresponding

with "color" is known as the "eye," and so forth,

[the sense-organ] corresponding with "dharma" is

known as the "mind." Since the mind which arises

with these [sense-organs] as the basis are capable

of discernment, it is called the eye-consciousness,

and so forth, down to the mind-consciousness.(62)

Hui-yuan often calls the first six consciousnesses

as a group the "phenomenal

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consciousnesses" (shih-shih(am)), in the same way as

he often designates the aadaana "the

false-consciousness'' and the aalaya "the

true-consciousness"; and has the following to say

about them in the Essentials:

What is called "phenomenal consciousnesses" [here]

are known as the "evolving consciousnesses"

(chuan-shih) in the La^nkaavataara-suutra (T, vol.

16, p. 463b, 1.1.), and the "manas [dependent]

consciousnesses" (i-shih(an)), the "discriminating

manas [-dependent] consciousnesses" (fen-pieh

i-shih(ao)), the "differentiated consciousnesses"

(li-shih(ap) ) , or the "phenomena-discriminating

consciousnesses" (fen-peih-shih-shih(aq)), in the

[Ta-ch'eng] ch'i-hsin lun. (T, vol. 32, p. 577b,

11.24-27)

They are called the "evolving consciousnesses"

because they evolve together with the six

sense-objects; unlike the false-consciousness

(aadaana), which is called "evolving consciousness"

because it produced the external world. They are

called the "manas" [-dependent] consciousnesses,"

because in the [Ta-ch'eng] ch'i-hsin lun, the eighth

true-consciousness is given the name citta, and the

seventh [false-consciousness] is given the name

manas. Since [the first six phenomenal

consciousnesses] arise with the manas [as their

immediate cause], they are [thereby] referred to as

the "manas [-dependent] consciousnesses." Since the

[manas] dependent consciousnesses discriminate the

[external] world of six sense-objects, they are also

known as the "discriminating manas [-dependent]

consciousnesses." Since they are differentiated into

six, corresponding to the [six] sense-organs and

[six] sense-objects, they are known as the

"differentiated consciousnesses." Since they

discriminate the phenomenal world of six

sense-objects, they are also known as the

"phenomena-discriminating consciousnesses."(63)

This list of synonyms of the term "phenomenal

consciousnesses" shows the following facts of the

first six consciousnesses:

1. The name "manas-dependent consciousnesses"

suggests that the first six consciousnesses are

dependent on the seventh consciousness (and so

ultimately on the eighth consciousness) for their

being. So Hui-yuan remarks a little later in the

Essentials:

The false self (seventh consciousness) arises

dependent on the true self (eighth

con-sciousness), for attachment to the self comes

into being when the true [mind] is permeated by

false [thoughts].(64) The phenomenal self (first

six consciousnesses) [in turn] arises dependent

on the false self (seventh con-sciousness) ,

resulting in a further deepening of fatuous

discrimination. It is so because the phenomenal

self regards sense-organs and sense-objects as

things with determinate nature. It is so also

because the phenomenal self wrongly attributes

[the ideas of] "self" and "properties pertaining

to the self" to skandhas originating from the

false mind (seventh consciousness).(65)

2. The name "evolving-consciousnesses" suggests that

the first six consciousnesses "evolve" only in

the presence of the six sense-objects color,

sound, smell, and so forth. From this fact, we

can further infer that the first six

consciousnesses, unlike the seventh and eight

consciousnesses, are not always in operation, for

experience shows that the six sense-objects are

seldom available all at once. The Essentials

specifies in detail the various conditions that

have to be satisfied before the first six

consciousnesses will function:

The first six phenomenal consciousnesses are

called "distinct" (pieh(ar)), while the seventh

and eighth [consciousnesses] are called "common"

(t'ung(as)). The first six [consciousnesses] are

known as "distinct," for each has its specific

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object, and arises one after the other. The

seventh and eighth consciousnesses are known as

"common," for they exist always.

It is asked, "Why do the first six

[consciousnesses] arise one after the other [and

do not come into being together]? " [It is

replied, ] "In the case of the first six

[consciousnesses], the mind and its object are

[conceived of as] distinct entities. Being

difficult to apprehend, we know their presence

only by the thoughts they give rise to. Since the

thoughts they give rise to are diverse, [we

conclude thereby that] the [first] six

[consciousnesses] arise separately and not all at

once.

Furthermore, the first six consciousnesses are

produced on the satisfaction of four conditions,

that is, causal condition (hetu-pratyaya) ,

consequent condition (samanantara-pratyaya) ,

cooperating condition (aalambana-pratyaya), and

efficient condition (adhipati-pratyaya) , [With

respect to the first six consciousnesses,] the six

sense-organs are the efficient condition, the six

sense-objects are the cooperating condition, the

preceding moments of thought which [by ceasing]

facilitate the emergance of the subsequent [moments

of thought] are the consequent condition, and the

homogeneous [cause] (sabhaagahetu) , associated

[cause] (samprayukta-hetu), and simultaneous [cause]

(sahabhuu-hetu) , and so forth are the causal

condition.(66) Since it is impossible that [all the

conditions for the production of the] six types [of

consciousness] are present at one time, [we know

thereby that the first six consciousnesses] are the

consequent conditions [of each other] and cannot

arise simultaneously."(67)

The first six consciousnesses are mental

functions which come into play only on the

realization of four conditions, that is, causal

condition, consequent condition, cooperating

condition, and efficient condition. For example,

the eye-consciousness only comes into being when

there exists the sense-organ "eye" as its inner

support (efficient condition) and the sense

object "color" as its outer support (cooperating

condition). Furthermore, there must also be the

presence of light to illuminate the color

sense-object (causal condition), as well as the

nonpresence of the other five consciousnesses

which would obstruct its operation (consequent

condition). Since these conditions are not always

fulfilled, the eye-consciousness, unlike the

seventh and eighth consciousnesses, does not

abide permanetly, but comes and goes as

circumstances change. And the same is true of the

ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,

tongue-consciousness, and so forth.

3. The names "discriminating manas-dependent

consciousnesses, " "differentiated

consciousnesses," and "phenomena-discriminating

consciousnesses" suggest that the first six

consciousnesses are concerned with the

discernment of sense-objects and the attribution

of definite nature to them despite their

mind-dependent character. This tendency of the

first six consciousnesses to ascribe determinate

being to phenomena is dwelt on repeatedly in the

Essentials. Thus, in explaining why the first six

consciousnesses and the seventh consciousness are

likewise depicted as "false," Hui-yuan writes:

With respect to the false [aspect of the mind],

the first six [consciousnesses] are deceived by

conditioned and illusory dharmas, and wrongly

consider them [as entities] with determinate

nature. So they are described as "false." The

seventh false-consciousness wrongly considers

[dharmas] as possessing definite characteristics,

even though there [actually] exists no dharma

outside the mind. So it is [also described as]

false.(68)

The seventh consciousness is described as

"false," for it stands for the general failure of

sentient beings to realize the truth of

mind-only, which leads to the false belief in the

reality of the phenomenal. The first six consci-

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ousnesses are also described as "false," for

under the influence of the false belief formet by

the seventh consciousness, they seize on objects

appearing in their particular fields of

perception as entities possessing independent

being, and attribute names and get attached to

them. The result naturally is the production of

defiled karma and bondage to the realm of

samsaara. So, quoting the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin

lun, Hui-yuan imputes the four features of

"sepculating on names," "attachment," "producing

karma," and "suffering owing to bondage to karma"

to the first six consciousnesses:

As for the four aspects of the phenomenal

consciousnesses, they are as mentioned in the

[Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] (T, vol. 33, p. 577a):

(1) The feature of attachment: This feature is

also called "the taint which is related to

attachment" in the [Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] lun.(69)

It refers to that basic ignorance which holds on

to [everchanging phenomena as objects with]

determinate nature.

(2) The feature of speculating on names: [This

feature is connected with] the so called ten

fundamental defilements.(70) Following the

suggestion of names, [the ideas of] the self,

sentient beings, and so forth, and give rise to

various bonds. So they are said to have the

feature of speculating on names.

( 3) The feature of producing karma: Owing to its

defiled [activities], [the phenomenal

consciousnesses] produced all sorts of [evil]

karma.

(4) The feature of suffering owing to bondage to

karma: [The phenomenal consciousnesses] receive

the fruit [of suffering] according to the karma

[they create].(71)

Again, as in the case of the aalaya and aadana,

Hui-yuan tries to define his conception of the first

six consciousnesses by referring to the

misconceptions of them. Altogether, Hui-yuan lists

eight erroneous views regarding the first six

consciousnesses, which he classifies into four pairs

of thesis and antithesis.(72) We shall outline the

first three pairs which are of immediate relevance

to our present purpose:

1. There is the opinion that the first six

consciousnesses are of one essence, and there is

also the opinion that the first six

consciousnesses are of different essence. Against

the former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first

six consciousnesses can not be absolutely one,

for the sense-organs and sense-objects they are

dependent on are diverse. Against the latter

view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six

consciousnesses are not absolutely different, for

if they were so, they would not hinder the

working of each other and would coexist at all

time, which is obviously not the case in actual

life.

2. There is the opinion that since the notion of an

enduring mind is necessary to the concepts of

transmigration and retribution, the first six

consciousnesses should be considered as

permanent. There is also the opinion that since

the Buddha has taught that all mental functions

are transitory, the first six consciousnesses

should be considered as impermanent. Against the

former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six

consciousnesses can not be definitely permanent,

for the six consciousnesses of gods, men,

animals, hungry ghosts, and beings in hell are

heterogeneous, so that a sentient moving from one

of these forms of rebirth to another could not

have their first six consciousnesses remain

unchanged. Agains the latter view, Hui-yuan

argues that the first six consciousnesses can not

be definitely impermanent, for if the mind were

annihilated from moment to moment, who is to reap

the fruit of past deeds after all?(73)

3. There is the opinion that the first six

consciousnesses are definitely existent,

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and there is also the opinion that the first six

consciousnesses are absolutely empty. Against the

former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six

consciousnesses can not be definitely existent,

for it is taught in the holy texts that

consciousnesses are subject to the four signs of

birth, subsistence, decay, and destruction.

Against the latter view, Hui-yuan argues that the

first six consciousnesses can not be absolutely

empty, for if there were not the first six

consciousnesses, how come there to be the

awareness and cognition of external objects? How

come there to be the production of good and evil

karma, and the experience of pleasure and pain

thereof?

V. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE TRUE AND THE FALSE: SOME

PROBLEMS OF THE MIND-ONLY TEACHING OF HUI-YUAN

In the preceding discussion, we have several times

indicated that it is Hui-yuan's belief that the

first seven consciousnesses and their objects, that

is, the entire defiled phenomenal world, owe their

being to the eighth consciousness, that is, the

intrinsically pure aalaya or the tathaagatagarbha.

That the defiled is ontologically dependent on the

pure can be inferred from the general thesis of

mind-only as outlined in section I, and it is a

truth which Hui-yuan repeatedly stresses in his

writings. So, commenting on the remark of the

Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun that "[Nonenlightened]

thoughts are not self-sufficient and do not exist

apart from the original enlightenment,"(74) Hui-yuan

observes in the Commentary:

That is to show that false dharmas do not exist on

their own, and are formed on the support of the true

[mind]. Without the true [mind], false [dharmas]

will not come into being.(75)

He further states in the Commentary that "the true

and the false are not separate from each other":

Question: The true and the false are in nature

different from each other. Why is it said that in

disciplining the false [consciousnesses], the true

[mind] is also permeated?

Answer: It is because the true and the false are not

separate from each other. Thus, when the false

[consciousnesses] are soiled, [the true mind] also

becomes soiled. When the false [consciousnesses] are

pure, [the true mind] also becomes pure....(76)

And this union of the true mind and false dharmas is

cited by Hui-yuan as exemplifying the Buddhist ideal

of nonduality:

As samsaara and nirvaa.na arise and are formed from

the true mind, "functions" (yung(g) , that is,

samsaara and nirvaa.na) do not exist apart from

"substance" (t'i(v), that is, the true mind). This

perfect harmony of "substance" and "function" is

known as [the truth of] nonduality.(77)

In this section, we shall try to see what arguments

Hui-yuan has offered to justify his idea of the

origination of the false from the true. Based on the

understanding so reached, we shall further attempt

to define what exactly the nonduality of the true

mind and false dharmas could mean in Hui-yuan's

teaching of mind-only.

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Thus, it may be asked how, if the

aalaya-consciousness is intrinsically pure, it could

ever come about that it would give rise to the

aadaana-consciousness, the first six

consciousnesses, and their respective objects, which

are defiled in nature. In explaining the derivation

of the impure from the pure, Hui-yuan brings in the

traditional Buddhist concept "ignorance."

"Ignorance," in Hui-yuan's own words, "is a deluded

and benighted [state of] mind. Since it is devoid of

(wu(at) the light (ming(au)) of wisdom, it is known

as ignorance (wu-ming(av) ) ."(78) This ignorance

permeates the pure mind, and brings about the

formation of defiled phenomena. So it is said:

[When the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun writes that] "It

is solely due to false thoughts that

differentiations come about" (T, vol. 32, p. 576a,

11.9-10), what [the term] "false thoughts" refers to

is "ignorance." Due to the deluding influence of

ignorance on the tathataa (the pure mind in itself),

there comes to be [the origination of the realm of]

sa.msaara. It is just as flowers in the sky appear

to those who have ailments in the eyes, and

disappear when the ailments are cured. The same is

true of sentient beings who, due to the veil of

ignorance, falsely grasp at illusory [appearances of

the realm of] sa.msaara as actual existences, and

[as a result,] create all sorts of [evil] karmas and

experience all kinds of sufferings.(79)

Following closely the terminology and pattern of

exposition of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan

calls the pure mind contaminated by ignorance "the

mind's phenomenal aspect" (hsin sheng-mieh men(aw))

and the pure mind in itself "the mind's noumenal

aspect" (hsin cheng-ju men(ax)):

Next, we can divide the mind in two with respect to

its "substance" (t'i(v) ) and "characteristic"

(hsiang(w)). So it is stated in the [Ta-ch'eng]

ch'i-hsin lun [that the mind consists of two

aspects:] first, the noumenal aspect, which is the

essential nature of the mind, and secondly, the

phenomenal aspect, which is the characteristic of

the mind. Speaking of the true mind as it is in

itself, its real substance remains eternally

tranquil, equal, and self-same, and this is known as

the mind's noumenal aspect.... Speaking of the true

mind when it is governed by the false, it unites

with the false and serves as the condition for the

production and annihilation [of the false

phenomena]; and this is known as the mind's

phenomenal aspect.(80)

While Hui-yuan, faithful to the Ti-lun tradition

with which he is closely affiliated, often uses the

term "aalaya" to designate the true mind in general,

he sometimes reserves it specifically for the true

mind's phenomenal aspect, and postulates the name

"amala" to designate the true mind's noumenal

aspect:

The true [mind] can be subdivided into two

[consciousnesses]:

1. the amala-consciousness, which is called the

"nondefiled [conscansciousness], " also the

"intrinsically pure [consciousness]" in our

(Chinese) language.(81) Since [the amala] refers

to the true [mind] as it is in itself, which is

the true substance which is eternally pure, we

describe it as "nondefiled." It is none other

than the noumenal aspect of the mind [discussed]

above.

2. the aalaya-consciousness, which is called the

"imperishable consciousness" (wu-mo shih(ay)) in

our (Chinese) language. Since the aforementioned

true mind does not lose its [real] substance even

while transmigrating in [the

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realm of] falsehood, it is described as

"imperishable." So it is said in the [Ta-ch'eng]

ch'i-hsin lun: "When [the true mind], which is

not subject to birth and death, unites with

[falsehood], which is subject to birth and

death, we have what is known as the

aalaya-consciousness. (T, vol. 32, p. 576b,

11.8-9)(82)

If we add the amala and the aalaya to the aadaana

and the first six consciousnesses, we would come to

have a system of nine consciousnesses, as Hui-yuan

enumerates in the Essentials:

First, by analyzing [the mind] into [the two aspects

of] the true and the false, it is said that there

are nine consciousnesses. [Thus,] the false [aspect]

can be divided into seven [consciousnesses], that

is, the [first] six phenomenal consciousnesses and

the false consciousness (the aadaana). The true

[aspect] can be divided into two [consciousnesses],

that is, the amala and the aalaya as shown above. If

we add these [two consciousnesses] to the

aforementioned [seven], there are altogether nine

[consciousnesses].(83)

This system of nine consciousnesses, that is,

amala-consciousness, aalaya-consciousness,

aadaana-consciousness, and the first six

consciousnesses, was actually taught by the She-lun

masters of Hui-yuan's time. While Hui-yuan as a

Ti-lun master generally prefers to consider the

scheme of eight consciousnesses as orthodox,(84) he

also sees nothing seriously amiss with the idea of

the nine consciousnesses of the She-lun School.(85)

In fact, this system of nine consciousnesses is

adopted sometimes implicitly and sometimes

explicitly by Hui-yuan in his exposition of the

nature of the mind in the Essentials, in which

cases, the name "root consciousness" (pen-shih(u))

often replaces the "aalaya" as the appellation of

the phnomenal aspect of the true mind. To cite one

clear instance:

...the true mind (ninth consciousness), which is the

nature of the buddha, unites with ignorance to form

the root-consciousness, [also] known as the aalaya

(eighth consciousness) . Based on the root

[-consciousness], there evolves the aadaana (seventh

consciousness), the self-grasping mind. [Also] based

on the root [-consciousness], there evolve the six

[phenomenal] consciousnesses such as the eye

[-consciousness], as well as the six sense-organs

and [six] sense-objects.(86)

In the Commentary, the system of nine

consciousnesses even takes over the central stage,

and is used instead of the scheme of eight

consciousnesses as the basic framework around which

Hui-yuan constructs his theory of Reality.(87)

From the above account, it becomes adamantly

clear that the question of how the impure can be

derived from the pure is answered by Hui-yuan by

introducing a new factor into his ontology, that is,

ignorance. It is "ignorance" which works on the pure

mind and leads to the production of impure

phenomena. In order to illustrate how this happens,

Hui-yuan often resorts to the simile of ocean and

wind made famous by the La^nkaavataara-suutra and

the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun:

It is just like ocean water which is stirred by the

wind. Even though the water and the wind are

inseparable, water is not by nature mobile. If the

wind stops, the movement [of the water] will cease;

and yet the wet nature [of the water] will remain

undestroyed.(88)

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Explaining the above passage of the Ta-ch'eng

ch'i-hsin lun in the Commentary, Hui-yuan writes:

"The ocean-water" [in the passage] stands for the

eighth consciousness, "the wind" stands for

ignorance, and "the waves" stand for the [first]

seven consciousnesses. [Just as] "the water and the

wind are inseparable", the true-consciousnesses and

ignorance [likewise] combine with the coming

together of relevant conditions. [Just as] "water is

not by nature mobile," the true [consciousnesses

likewise] does not have the nature of falsehood, and

produces [the impure first seven consciousnesses

only] as a response to [the action of] the false

(ignorance). [Just as] "If the wind stops, the

movement of the ocean water will cease," [likewise]

when ignorance ceases, the [first] seven

consciousnesses will come to an end. [Just as] "the

wet nature of the water will remain undestroyed,"

the essential nature of the true-consciousness is

[likewise] eternal.(89)

Hui-yuan continues to cite the simile as it first

appears in the La^nkaavaataara-suutra, (90) and

concludes with the following remarks:

This [simile] shows that even though the ocean is

driven by wind, its water-nature remains unchanged.

Since its water [-nature] never changes, it is

described as "eternal." [On the other hand,] despite

its eternal nature, it assumes the appearance of

waves when driven by wind. [This simile] illustrates

[the fact] that even though the true-consciousness

[which is the ocean] is disturbed by the wind which

is the false thoughts, its true nature never alters.

[On the other hand,l despite its immutable essence,

the true aspect of the mind generates illusory

phenomena when permeated by false thoughts [created]

from the beginningless past, giving rise to the

[first] seven consciousnesses, in the same way as

ocean gives rise to waves [when driven by wind].(91)

In the simile, the true-mind is likened to ocean

water, and its purity to the ocean water's wet

nature. Ignorance, like wind, blows on the water and

stirs up waves, that is, impure phenomena comprising

the first seven consciousnesses and their objects.

But just as motion is not an essential property of

ocean water, impure phenomena are also not an

essential feature of the true-mind. Moreover, even

when disturbed, the purity of the mind, like the wet

nature of the ocean water, remains undestroyed; and

once the wind of ignorance ceases, the waves of

impure phenomena will also disappear, and the

true-mind will be its own pure self once again.

Thus, by making the action of "ignorance" the

immediate occasion for the arising of impure

phenomena, a way seems to have been found to make

the pure aalaya the ontological ground of the impure

sa.msaaric realm, and yet without compromising in

any way its intrinsic immaculate essence.

The falling back on the concept of "ignorance"

to explain the origin of defilements is quite

natural within the context of Buddhism, for

"ignorance" (avidyaa), as is well known, heads the

list of the twelve links in the chain of dependent

origination, and as such, it has always been

regarded by Buddhists as the main cause of man's

everlasting bondage to the cycles of birth and

death. But what interests us at present is whether

resorting to this concept does help Hui-yuan to

solve the problem he has in hand. An initial

reaction to the above account is: If the original

mind of sentient beings is perfectly pure, why is it

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subjected to the defiling influence of "ignorance,"

even if the latter is bent on affecting it? Should

this liability to the disturbances of ignorance not

be considered a defect, so much so that a mind

bearing this defect is no longer entitled to the

epithet of "being perfectly pure"? Conceivably, ways

can be found to bypass this dilemma. For example, it

may be argued that the production of the defiled is

necessary in order that the pure-mind will come to

self-awareness of its nondefiled character. But so

far as the writings of Hui-yuan are concerned, the

possibility of the arising of such or similar doubts

and so the need for explanation are never

entertained, as if merely by introducing the concept

"ignorance" the issue of the origination of the

impure from the pure is accounted for once and

forever.

Another allied question which Hui-yuan has left

completely open is the origin of ignorance. Indeed,

there is so little discussion of the subject in the

extant writings of Hui-yuan that we have to rely

largely on his random remarks and our general

understanding of his metaphysical position to infer

his opinion on the matter. Given the general thesis

of mind-only as outlined in section I, it seems that

the source of ignorance should be traced back to the

pure consciousness, for we have been informed all

along that all forms of existence without exception

owe their being to the original mind. This idea of

the true mind as the ground of ignorance is

suggested by a number of observations in the

Essentials and the Commentary. So, quoting the

Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan writes in the

Essentials:

As there is at first the tathataa (the pure mind),

there arises subsequently ignorance, the cause of

defilements. As there is ignorance, the cause of

defilements, which permeates the tathataa (the pure

mind), there arises the false mind (the first seven

consciousnesses).(92)

A little later, talking of the permeation of the

tathataa (the true mind), Hui-yuan declares:

Two things result from the permeation of the

tathataa: first, the arising of ignorance, and

second, the arising of the false mind. Since the

tathataa transcends [all] distinctions, it can give

rise to ignorance. Since the tathataa's enlightened

nature is covered by delusions, it produces the

false mind.(93)

However, if this idea of the true mind as the source

of ignorance is adopted as representing the Hui-yuan

position, the problem we have considered in the

preceding paragraph, that is, the problem of the

origination of the impure from the pure, will emerge

once again, and in an even more acute form. For if

we are previously told to believe that a perfectly

pure mind may become the support of impure dharmas

on being affected by an alien factor "ignorance," we

are now further invited to view this alien factor,

which is the immediate occasion of the formation of

all impurities, as among the creations of the

perfectly pure mind itself. Again, we do not dispute

that arguments may actually be produced to make

sense of this apparently improbable situation But

the fact remains that

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no such argument appears in any of Hui-yuan's extant

writings, as if there exists no room for misgivings

at all.

Is it possible that despite the scattered

statements quoted above, Hui-yuan in fact means to

locate the origin of ignorance elsewhere? A likely

candidate in this respect is the aadaana, that is,

the seventh consciousness. We have seen in the

discussion of the aadaana in section III that

Hui-yuan is most keen on stressing the

nonenlightened essence of the aadaana-consciousness.

Thus, he gives "ignorance" as one of the four

characteristics of the aadaana,(94) and cites the

term "ignorant consciousness" as one of the

aadaana's synonyms.(95) Furthermore, the aadaana is

several times referred to by Hui-yuan as "the ground

of the original ignorance, "(96) "the source of

falsehoods,"(97) and so forth. In the following

paragraph, the aadaana is pictured as the immediate

factor leading to the arising of the first six

consciousnesses, a role which in the Hui-yuan system

of thought is usually reserved for "ignorance":

Due to the permeation of the root-consciousness (the

aalaya) by the aadaana, the self-grasping mind,

[sentient beings] do not see [the nature of] dharmas

as they really are, and cannot attain nirvaa.na. [As

a consequence, ] there arise the first six

consciousnesses and [their corresponding] six

sense-organs and [six] sense-objects, which

[however] will cease to exist when the aadaana is

abandoned.(98)

But to delegate the role of "ignorance" to the

aadaana-consciousness does not really help Hui-yuan

to solve the problem he is facing, for in Hui-yuan's

mind-only teaching, the seventh consciousness is

included among the creations of the intrinsically

pure aalaya. So the query why a perfectly pure

aalaya would give rise to the origin of impurities

(not being the aadaana) still applies. In addition,

this way of tackling the problem suffers from the

disadvantage of being circular, for is the

aadaana-consciousness not being made out all along

as the outcome of the permeation of the pure mind by

ignorance? How can it also claim to be the cause of

ignorance?

Perhaps, the easiest way out of the already

discussed difficulty is to consider "ignorance" as a

force existing alongside and ontologically

independent of the pure consciousness. Indeed, the

manner in which Hui-yuan presents the interaction of

the pure mind with ignorance often suggests such a

situation:

By the union [of the true and the false, werefer

to] the true-consciousness, which, on being

permeated by bad habits [in existence from] the

beginningless past, gives rise to the ground of

ignorance. The ignorance thus formed does not exist

apart from the pure mind, and together with the pure

mind constitutes the basis of the soul which is

called the root-consciousness, also known as the

aalaya-consciousness.... This aalaya, permeated by

the false belief in existence of permanent selves in

operation from the beginningless past, in turn gives

rise to seeds of self-attachment. Due to the power

of these seeds, there arises the aadaana, the

self-clinging mind.... Again, this aalaya which is

the root-consciousness, permeated by the names of

the six consciousnesses, sense-organs, and

sense-objects in operation from the beginningless

past, gives rise to

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their seeds. Due to the power of these seeds, there

arise the [first] six evolving consciousnesses and

the six sense-organs and sense-objects.(99)

In this account of the evolution of various

phenomenal consciousnesses from the true mind, the

scheme of nine consciousnesses is adopted. The

account starts with two self-sufficient factors: the

"true-consciousness" (the ninth consciousness) and

"bad habits in existence from the beginningless

past." The interaction of these two factors gives

rise to the "root-consciousness," also known as the

aalaya (the eighth consciousness), which has the

true-consciousness as its noumenal aspect and "the

ground of ignorance as the basis of its phenomenal

aspect." The subsequent evolution of the phenomenal

aspect of the root-consciousness leads to the

formation of the aadaana and the first six

consciousnesses with their orresponding sense-organs

and sense-objects.

Now, the preceding picture of dual realities,

that is, the true-consciousness and "bad habits,"

has the virtue of being straightforward. Besides, it

successfully evades the demand for an explanation of

the origin of ignorance, for if we accept the above

conceptual framework, then "bad habits," like the

true-consciousness, has been at work from eternity,

and it owes its existence to nothing other than

itself. Nevertheless, this solution is not without

its concomitant shortcomings:

1. It entails a significant departure from the

concept of mind-only, for it admits the existence

of a metaphysical principle independent of the

pure mind.

2. It lends credence to the popular criticism that

the mind-only teaching of the early Chinese

Yogaacaarins involves differentiations between

the defiled and nondefiled, the phenomenal and

noumenal, and so forth, and so is seriously

compromising the central Buddhist ideal of

"nonduality" (puerh(az) ) or the "round"

(yuan-jing(ba)) as embodied in such celebrated

Mahaayaana sayings as "Sa.msaara is nirvaa.na,"

"Form is emptiness, and emptiness is form," and

so forth.(100) This criticism is especially

pertinent when "ignorance" is considered as

existing apart from the tathaagatagarbha, for if

defiled phenomena arise only when the pure mind

is permeated by an external factor "ignorance,"

they would be accidental to the pure mind, and

can be removed in theory without affecting the

tathaagatagarba's inner identity. The formation

of impure dharmas would only be an essential

feature of the pure mind if "ignorance," the

necessary condition for the arising of

defilements, is intrinsic to the

tathaagatagarbha. But then, ignorance would no

longer be independent of the pure mind, and the

objection how a perfectly pure mind can have

"ignorance" as part of its nature would be

relevant again.